Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Food Science is an important working resource for all researchers engaged in the never-ending struggle to produce safer, higher-quality foods more efficiently.

BRIAN HILLS, PhD, is head of the molecular structure and dynamics group at the Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich, United Kingdom.

PREFACE

vii

PART ONE MACROSCOPIC DISTANCE SCALE

1

(176)

1 Resume of MRI Methodology

3

(32)

1.1 Introduction

3

(1)

1.2 Phase Coherence and Fourier Conjugate Variables in NMR

3

(7)

1.3 Higher-Order Combinations of Fourier Conjugates

10

(4)

1.4 Modulus and Phase Images

14

(1)

1.5 Statistical Aspects of MRI

15

(2)

1.6 Fourier Transformation of the Radio-Frequency Waveform: Slice Selection

17

(3)

1.7 Fourier Transformation of the Gradient Modulation: Motional Spectra and FD-MG-NMR

20

(2)

1.8 Spin and Gradient Echoes: Contrast in k-Space Imaging

22

(4)

1.9 Fast Imaging Methods

26

(5)

1.10 Chemical Shift Imaging

31

(4)

2 MRI and Food Processing: Mapping Mass Transport and Phase Behavior

35

(41)

2.1 Introduction

35

(1)

2.2 MRI and Process Optimization

36

(2)

2.3 Drying

38

(17)

2.4 Rehydration

55

(5)

2.5 Freezing and Freeze-Thawing

60

(8)

2.6 Freeze-Drying

68

(5)

2.7 MRI and Miscellaneous Processing Operations

73

(1)

2.8 MRI and New Processing Technologies

74

(2)

3 MRI and Food Processing: Mapping Temperature and Quality

76

(26)

3.1 MRI and Temperature Mapping

76

(11)

3.2 MRI and Food Quality Factors

87

(15)

4 Flow Imaging and Food Rheology

102

(32)

4.1 Introduction

102

(1)

4.2 Principles of Flow Imaging

103

(2)

4.3 Basic Rheology

105

(3)

4.4 MRI and Tube Viscometers

108

(3)

4.5 MRI and Rotational Viscometers

111

(3)

4.6 Solid Suspensions

114

(2)

4.7 MRI and Computational Fluid Dynamics

116

(1)

4.8 Flow and Quality Assurance

117

(1)

4.9 Extrusion

118

(3)

4.10 Flow in Bioreactors

121

(2)

4.11 Mixing and Turbulence

123

(4)

4.12 Velocity Distributions

127

(1)

4.13 Displacement Imaging of Complex Flows

128

(6)

5 Solid-Imaging Techniques

134

(18)

5.1 Solid Linewidths

134

(1)

5.2 Solid Imaging and Food Science

135

(2)

5.3 Stray-Field Imaging

137

(6)

5.4 Phase-Encoding Solid Imaging

143

(5)

5.5 Sinusoidal Gradient-Echo Imaging

148

(4)

6 On-Line MRI for Process Control and Quality Assurance

152

(8)

6.1 Introduction

152

(1)

6.2 Constraints Imposed by Spin Physics

153

(3)

6.3 Nonspatially Resolved On-Line NMR

156

(1)

6.4 Spatially Resolved On-Line NMR

157

(3)

7 Whole-Plant Functional Imaging

160

(6)

7.1 Introduction

160

(2)

7.2 Functional Root Imaging

162

(1)

7.3 Transport in Intact Plants

162

(2)

7.4 Functional Brain Imaging and Consumer Science

164

(2)

8 Unconventional MRI Techniques

166

(11)

8.1 Introduction

166

(1)

8.2 Rotating-Frame Imaging

166

(4)

8.3 Multinuclear Imaging

170

(4)

8.4 NMR Force Microscopy

174

(3)

PART TWO MICROSCOPIC DISTANCE SCALE

177

(88)

9 Microimaging and NMR Microscopy

179

(26)

9.1 Introduction

179

(1)

9.2 Applications of NMR Microimaging to Cellular Tissue

179

(9)

9.3 Microimaging Processing Effects in Tissue

188

(8)

9.4 Intracellular Microimaging

196

(6)

9.5 Microscopic Transport Models for Cellular Tissue

202

(3)

10 Microstructure and Relaxometry

205

(37)

10.1 Introduction

205

(1)

10.2 Water Proton Relaxation in Microscopically Heterogeneous Systems

205

(30)

10.3 Relaxation Effects of Internal Field Gradients

235

(4)

10.4 Microstructure and the Microbial Safety of Foods

239

(3)

11 Probing Microstructure with Diffusion

242

(23)

11.1 Introduction

242

(1)

11.2 Diffusion-Weighted Pulse Sequences

242

(2)

11.3 Diffusion Propagator and Microstructure

244

(7)

11.4 Susceptibility Effects on Diffusion Measurements

251

(1)

11.5 Coupled Relaxation and Diffusion

252

(1)

11.6 Diffusion in Multicompartment Systems

253

(1)

11.7 Anomalous Diffusion

254

(1)

11.8 Microstructure-Weighted k-Space Imaging

255

(1)

11.9 Constant-Gradient CPMG and Stimulated-Echo Studies

256

(3)

11.10 Microstructural Determination in Food Matrices

259

(6)

PART THREE MOLECULAR DISTANCE SCALE

265

(52)

12 Molecular Origins of Relaxation Contrast

267

(34)

12.1 Introduction

267

(1)

12.2 Relaxation in a Single Proton Pool

267

(3)

12.3 Water Proton Transverse Relaxation

270

(14)

12.4 Water Proton Longitudinal Relaxation

284

(4)

12.5 Water Proton Rotating-Frame Relaxation

288

(3)

12.6 Low-Water-Content Homogeneous Systems

291

(7)

Appendix A

298

(1)

Appendix B

299

(2)

13 Molecular Factors Influencing the Diffusion and Transfer of Water Magnetization

301

(16)

13.1 Introduction

301

(1)

13.2 Molecular Factors Influencing Diffusion Contrast

301

(4)

13.3 Magnetization Transfer

305

(3)

13.4 Multistate Theory of Water Relations in Foods

308

(9)

References

317

(18)

INDEX

335

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