Mechanical Design in Organisms

by Wainwright, Stephen A.

• ISBN13: 9780691083063
• ISBN10: 0691083061
• Edition: Reprint
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1982-10-01
• Publisher: Princeton Univ Pr

Summary

This book deals with an interface between mechanical engineering and biology. It reviews biological structural materials and systems and their mechanically important features and demonstrates that function at any particular level of biological integration is permitted and controlled by structure at lower levels of integration.

Author Biography

S. A. Wainwright is Professor of Zoology at Duke University W. D. Biggs is Professor of Construction Management at the University of Reading, UK J. D. Currey is Professor of Biology at the University of York, UK J. M. Gosline is Professor of Zoology at the University of British Columbia

Table of Contents

Preface	p. v
Acknowledgement	p. vi
List of symbols	p. xii
Introduction	p. 1
Materials	p. 5
Principles of the strength of materials: Phenomenological description	p. 6
Introduction	p. 6
Stress and Strain	p. 7
Linear Elasticity	p. 8
The Elastic Moduli	p. 9
Poisson's Ratio	p. 11
Elastic Resilience--Stored Energy	p. 12
Elastic Stress Concentrations	p. 15
Fracture of Linearly Elastic Solids	p. 18
Summary of Properties of Linearly Elastic Solids	p. 22
Viscosity and Relaxation	p. 23
Linear Viscoelasticity	p. 25
Creep and Stress Relaxation	p. 27
Effect of Temperature	p. 29
The Glass Transition	p. 30
Dynamic Behaviour	p. 31
Viscoelastic Models	p. 33
Retardation and Relaxation Spectra	p. 36
Fracture of Viscoelastic Materials	p. 39
Generalization of the Griffith Theory of Fracture	p. 41
Summary of Properties of Viscoelastic Materials	p. 43
Principles of the strength of materials: Molecular interpretation	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Thermodynamics of Mechanical Deformation	p. 45
Linear Elasticity	p. 47
The Structure of Polymers	p. 50
Statistics of a Polymer Chain	p. 51
Rubber Elasticity	p. 54
Molecular Interpretations of Rubbery Polymers	p. 57
Molecular Structure and the Master Curve	p. 60
Tensile materials	p. 64
Introduction to Crystalline Polymers	p. 64
Factors Affecting Crystallinity in Polymers	p. 64
The Structure of Polymer Crystals	p. 67
Mechanical Properties of Crystalline Polymers	p. 71
Silk	p. 73
The Structure of Parallel-[beta] Silks	p. 73
The Mechanical Properties of Silks	p. 77
Other Types of Silk	p. 80
Collagen	p. 81
The Structure of Collagen	p. 82
Mechanical Properties of Collagen Fibres	p. 88
Cellulose	p. 94
The Structure of Cellulose	p. 95
Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Fibres	p. 99
Chitin	p. 104
The Structure of Chitin	p. 105
Mechanical Properties of Chitin Fibres	p. 107
Pliant materials	p. 110
Introduction	p. 110
The Protein Rubbers	p. 110
Resilin	p. 111
Abductin	p. 114
Elastin	p. 116
The Mucopolysaccharides	p. 119
Pliant Composites	p. 123
Fibre Patterns in Pliant Composites	p. 124
The Role of the Amorphous Phase	p. 126
Mesoglea	p. 127
Uterine Cervix	p. 130
Skin	p. 132
Arterial Wall	p. 134
Cartilage	p. 138
Mechanical Properties of Cartilage	p. 141
Rigid materials	p. 144
Introduction	p. 144
Limiting Behaviour of Composite Materials	p. 144
Elastic Fibres in a Matrix	p. 147
Discontinuous Fibres	p. 149
Effect of Fibre Orientation	p. 150
Compression of Composite Materials	p. 153
Fracture of Composite Materials	p. 154
Voids	p. 157
Structure of Arthropod Cuticle	p. 159
Mechanical Properties of Arthropod Cuticle	p. 164
Structure of Bone	p. 169
Mechanical Properties of Bone	p. 174
Main Features of Behaviour in Relation to Structure	p. 175
Anisotropic Behaviour of Bone	p. 180
Stress Concentrations in Bone	p. 181
The Effect of Mineralization on Bone	p. 183
Fatigue in Bone	p. 184
Adaptive Growth and Reconstruction in Bone	p. 185
Keratin	p. 187
Gorgonin and Antipathin	p. 191
Structure of the Plant Cell Wall	p. 194
Cell Wall Structure in Nitella	p. 196
The Tracheid	p. 196
Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls	p. 198
Structure of Wood	p. 202
Mechanical Properties of Wood	p. 203
Stony Materials	p. 207
Porifera	p. 207
Cnidaria	p. 210
Mollusca	p. 211
Brachiopoda	p. 214
Arthropoda	p. 216
Echinodermata	p. 216
Birds' Eggshells	p. 218
Spicules: Mechanical Considerations	p. 219
Teeth	p. 221
Mechanical Properties of Stony Materials	p. 224
Grain Size	p. 225
Porosity	p. 227
The Function of the Organic Matrix	p. 229
Stony Skeletons with Many Holes	p. 233
Rigid Skeletal Materials: some Final Remarks	p. 234
Structural Elements and Systems	p. 241
Elements of structural systems	p. 243
Introduction	p. 243
Bending	p. 244
Compression and Buckling	p. 249
Torsion	p. 253
Cross-Sectional Shape	p. 254
Shells	p. 261
Materials for Minimum Weight	p. 264
Principles of Structural Optimization	p. 268
The Failure of Elements (and Shells)	p. 269
Joints	p. 275
Degrees of Freedom	p. 275
Forces and Directions	p. 277
Flexible Joints	p. 278
Sliding Joints	p. 279
Adaptation of Shape	p. 280
Adaptation of Material	p. 283
Support in organisms	p. 287
Introduction to Rigid and Flexible Systems	p. 287
The Optimization of Space Frames	p. 289
Fibre-wound Cylinders as Reinforced Membrane Sytems	p. 293
Design Principles for Biological Structural Systems	p. 297
Real Organisms: An Overview	p. 299
Symmetry	p. 299
Reaction to Force	p. 299
Fluid Support Systems in Plants and Animals	p. 302
High-Pressure Worms	p. 302
Low-Pressure Worms	p. 304
Open, Extensible Cylinders: Sea Anemones	p. 306
Hydra and Other Polyps	p. 308
Medusae	p. 310
Tube Feet	p. 313
Metamerism	p. 316
On Being Surrounded by Air	p. 318
Wilting Plants	p. 318
Woody Plants	p. 320
Reaction Wood	p. 321
Fibre-reinforced Palm Trees	p. 324
The Hydrostatic Onychophora	p. 325
Jointed Frameworks of Solid Materials	p. 327
Running and Burrowing Myriapods	p. 327
Insects	p. 332
Complex Support Systems: Molluscs and Echinoderms	p. 333
Squid Locomotion	p. 334
Backbones	p. 337
Stressed Tissues	p. 339
Safety Factors	p. 340
Ecomechanics	p. 345
Ecological mechanics	p. 347
Introduction	p. 347
The Stressful Environment	p. 348
Adaptations to Gravity (Mass)	p. 348
Adaptations to Velocity of Flow (Strength and Rigidity)	p. 349
Rigid Stony Corals	p. 349
Compliant and Tensile Grasses, Seaweeds and Spider Webs	p. 349
Drag Control in Air: Trees	p. 355
Drag Control in Water: Passive Suspension Feeders	p. 355
Adaptations to Direction of Flow (Anisotropy)	p. 358
Adaptations to Duration and Frequency of Flow (Stress Rate and Fatigue)	p. 364
Meiofauna and the Stormy Interstices	p. 364
Active Suspension Feeders	p. 365
The Informative Environment	p. 365
Chemical Information	p. 365
Thermal Information	p. 365
Rheological Information	p. 367
The Next Few Years	p. 367
References--Author Index	p. 369
Subject Index	p. 395
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