Over the past decade, great strides have been made in the technology of microwave oscillators and synthesizers, with digital frequency synthesizers in particular attracting much attention. These synthesizers are now being used in virtually all modern signal generators and radio communication equipment. Until now, however, detailed information about their design has been hard to come by-much of it scattered through journal articles-and most books on the subject have taken a primarily theoretical approach. Enter Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers-the first book to emphasize both practical circuit information from RF to millimeter-wave frequencies and up-to-date theory. Based on course material taught by author Ulrich L. Rohde at George Washington University and recent work done by the author at Compact Software, Inc. and Synergy Microwave Corporation, this volume is a complete revision and update of Rohde's landmark text, Digital PLL Frequency Synthesizers: Theory and Design. While it provides all the necessary theory and formulas, it also offers an in-depth look at the practical side of the phase-lock loop (PLL) in synthesizers-including special loops, loop components, and practical circuits-material that is not available in any other book. Rohde explains loop fundamentals, demonstrates the linear approach to oscillator phase noise, discusses the digital direct synthesizer technique, addresses low noise oscillator design, and provides insight into the role and

Ulrich L. Rohde is President of Compact Software, Inc., in Paterson, New Jersey, a partner of Rohde & Schwarz in Munich, Germany, and Chairman of the Board of Synergy Microwave Corporation in Paterson. Formerly a professor of electrical engineering at George Washington University and the University of Florida, Dr. Rohde, as president of Communication Consulting Corporation, has also consulted on a number of communication projects in industry and government, has published over forty scientific articles in professional journals, and has authored and coauthored several books, including Digital PLL Frequency Synthesizers: Theory and Design, the precursor to this volume.

Preface

xi

(4)

Important Notations

xv

1 Loop Fundamentals

1

(78)

1-1 Introduction to Linear Loops

1

(3)

1-2 Characteristics of a Loop

4

(5)

1-3 Digital Loops

9

(2)

1-4 Type 1 First-Order Loops

11

(4)

1-5 Type 1 Second-Order Loops

15

(9)

1-6 Type 2 Second-Order Loop

24

(10)

1-6-1 Transient Behavior of Digital Loops Using Tri-state Phase Detectors

27

(7)

1-7 Type 2 Third-Order Loop

34

(10)

1-7-1 Transfer Function of Type 2 Third-Order Loop

35

(8)

1-7-2 FM Noise Suppression

43

(1)

1-8 Higher-Order Loops

44

(4)

1-8-1 Fifth-Order Loop Transient Response

44

(4)

1-9 Digital Loops with Mixers

48

(5)

1-10 Acquisition

53

(22)

1-10-1 Pull-in Performance of the Digital Loop

60

(2)

1-10-2 Coarse Steering of the VCO as an Acquisition Aid

62

(2)

1-10-3 Loop Stability

64

(11)

References and Suggested Reading

75

(4)

2 Noise and Spurious Response of Loops

79

(57)

2-1 Introduction to Sideband Noise

79

(3)

2-2 Spectral Density of Frequency Fluctuations, Related to S XXX and XXX

82

(1)

2-3 Residual FM Related to XXX (fm)

83

(1)

2-4 Allan Variance Related to XXX (fm)

84

(2)

2-5 Linear Approach for the Calculation of Oscillator Phase Noise

86

(13)

2-6 Noise Contributions in Phase-Locked Systems

99

(12)

2-6-1 Phase Noise Characteristics of Amplifiers

101

(1)

2-6-2 Phase Noise Characteristics of Dividers

102

(3)

2-6-3 Phase Noise Characteristics of Phase/Frequency Comparators

105

(1)

2-6-4 Phase Noise Characteristics of Multipliers

106

(4)

2-6-5 Noise Contribution from Power Supplies

110

(1)

2-7 Overall Phase Noise Performance of a System

111

(7)

2-7-1 Practical Results for Noise Contributions

117

(1)

2-8 Measurement of Phase Noise

118

(14)

2-8-1 Heterodyne Frequency Measurement Technique

119

(1)

2-8-2 Phase Noise Measurement with Spectrum Analyzer

120

(1)

2-8-3 Phase Noise Measurement with Frequency Discriminator

121

(1)

2-8-4 Delay Line and Mixer as Frequency Comparator

122

(1)

2-8-5 Phase Noise Measurement with Two Sources and Phase Comparator

123

(9)

References and Suggested Reading

132

(4)

3 Special Loops

136

(61)

3-1 Direct Digital Synthesis Techniques

136

(34)

3-1-1 A First Look at Fractional N

137

(2)

3-1-2 Digital Waveform Synthesizers

139

(14)

3-1-3 Signal Quality

153

(16)

3-1-4 Future Prospects

169

(1)

3-2 Multiple Sampler Loops

170

(1)

3-3 Loops with Delay Line as Phase Comparators

171

(1)

3-4 Fractional Division N Synthesizers

172

(21)

3-4-1 Special Patents for Fractional Division N Synthesizers

191

(2)

References

193

(4)

4 Loop Components

197

(222)

4-1 Oscillator Design

197

(39)

4-1-1 Basics of Oscillators

197

(16)

4-1-2 Low-Noise LC Oscillators

213

(3)

4-1-3 Switchable/Tunable LC Oscillators

216

(10)

4-1-4 Use of Tuning Diodes

226

(7)

4-1-5 Use of Diode Switches

233

(3)

4-1-6 Use of Diodes for Frequency Multiplication

236

(1)

4-2 Reference Frequency Standards

236

(48)

4-2-1 Requirements

237

(2)

4-2-2 Specifying Oscillators

239

(1)

4-2-3 Typical Examples of Crystal Oscillator Specifications

240

(2)

4-2-4 Crystal Resonators

242

(10)

4-2-5 Crystal Specifications

252

(1)

4-2-6 Crystal Oscillators

252

(24)

4-2-7 Effect of External Influences on Oscillator Stability

276

(1)

4-2-8 High-Performance Oscillator Capabilities

277

(1)

4-2-9 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Oscillators

277

(7)

4-3 Mixer Applications

284

(4)

4-4 Phase/Frequency Comparators

288

(31)

4-4-1 Diode Rings

289

(2)

4-4-2 Exclusive ORs

291

(3)

4-4-3 Sample/Hold Detectors

294

(8)

4-4-4 Edge-Triggered JK Master/Slave Flip-Flops

302

(3)

4-4-5 Digital Tri-state Comparators

305

(14)

4-5 Wideband High-Gain Amplifiers

319

(11)

4-5-1 Summation Amplifiers

319

(4)

4-5-2 Differential Limiters

323

(1)

4-5-3 Isolation Amplifiers

324

(6)

4-6 Programmable Dividers

330

(45)

4-6-1 Asynchronous Counters

330

(3)

4-6-2 Programmable Synchronous Up/Down-Counters

333

(19)

4-6-3 Swallow Counters/Dual-Modulus Counters

352

(12)

4-6-4 Look-Ahead and Delay Compensation

364

(11)

4-7 Loop Filters

375

(7)

4-7-1 Passive RC Filters

375

(1)

4-7-2 Active RC Filters

376

(2)

4-7-3 Active Second-Order Low-Pass Filters

378

(4)

4-7-4 Passive LC Filters

382

(1)

4-8 Microwave Oscillator Design

382

(15)

4-8-1 Introduction

382

(5)

4-8-2 The Compressed Smith Chart

387

(1)

4-8-3 Series or Parallel Resonance

388

(2)

4-8-4 Two-Port Oscillator Design

390

(7)

4-9 Microwave Resonators

397

(12)

4-9-1 SAW Oscillators

398

(1)

4-9-2 Dielectric Resonators

399

(3)

4-9-3 YIG Oscillators

402

(1)

4-9-4 Varactor Resonators

403

(2)

4-9-5 Ceramic Resonators

405

(4)

References

409

(10)

5 Digital PLL Synthesizers

419

(70)

5-1 Multiloop Synthesizers Using Different Techniques

419

(8)

5-1-1 Direct Frequency Synthesis

419

(3)

5-1-2 Multiple Loops

422

(5)

5-2 System Analysis

427

(10)

5-3 Low-Noise Microwave Synthesizer

437

(34)

5-3-1 Building Bocks

437

(6)

5-3-2 Output Loop Response

443

(1)

5-3-3 Low Phase Noise References: Frequency Standards

444

(3)

5-3-4 Critical Stages

447

(14)

5-3-5 Time Domain Analysis

461

(1)

5-3-6 Summary

462

(5)

5-3-7 Two Commercial Synthesizer Examples

467

(4)

5-4 Microprocessor Applications in Synthesizers

471

(10)

5-5 Transceiver Applications

481

(3)

References

484

(5)

6 High-Performance Hybrid Synthesizer

489

(16)

6-1 Basic Synthesizer Approach

490

(6)

6-2 Loop Filter Design

496

(8)

6-3 Summary

504

(1)

References

504

(1)

APPENDICES

505

(126)

A Mathematical Review

507

(44)

A-1 Functions of a Complex Variable

507

(6)

A-2 Complex Planes

513

(5)

A-3 Bode Diagram

518

(6)

A-4 Laplace Transformation

524

(9)

A-5 Low-Noise Oscillator Design

533

(5)

A-6 Oscillator Amplitude Stabilization

538

(6)

A-7 Very Low Phase Noise VCO for 800 MHz

544

(5)

References

549

(2)

B A General-Purpose Nonlinear Approach to the Computation of Sideband Phase Noise in Free-Running Microwave and RF Oscillators

551

(36)

B-1 Introduction

551

(1)

B-2 Noise Generation in Oscillators

552

(1)

B-3 Bias-Dependent Noise Model

552

(10)

B-4 General Concept of Noisy Circuits

562

(3)

B-5 Noise Figure of Mixer Circuits

565

(2)

B-6 Oscillator Noise Analysis

567

(2)

B-7 Limitations of the Frequency-Conversion Approach

569

(2)

B-8 Summary of the Phase Noise Spectrum of the Oscillator

571

(2)

B-9 Verification Examples for the Calculation of Phase Noise in Oscillators Using Nonlinear Techniques

573

(12)

B-10 Summary

585

(1)

References

585

(2)

C Example of Wireless Synthesizers Using Commercial ICs

587

(38)

D MMIC-Based Synthesizers

625

(6)

Index

631

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