Mineralogy

by Perkins, Dexter

• ISBN13: 9780130620996
• ISBN10: 0130620998
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

This learner-oriented text is written in a casual, jargon-free style to present a modern introduction to mineralogy. It emphasizes real-world applications and an "outside-in approach" as well as the history and human side of mineralogy.Chapter topics include elements and minerals; crystallization and classification of minerals; mineral properties: hand specimen mineralogy; optical mineralogy; igneous rocks and silicate minerals; sedimentary minerals and sedimentary rocks; metamorphic minerals and metamorphic rocks; ore deposits and economic minerals; crystal morphology and symmetry; crystallography; units cells, points, lines, and planes; x-ray diffraction; atomic structure; and descriptions of minerals.For individuals interested in the science of mineralogy, and how minerals impact everyday life.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
PART I: MINERAL PROPERTIES AND OCCURRENCES	1	(172)
Elements and Minerals	3	(23)
Minerals	3	(1)
The Importance of Minerals	4	(1)
Box 1.1 The Amoco Building, Chicago	4	(1)
Elements: The Basic Building Blocks	5	(3)
Historical Views of Elements and Matter	5	(1)
Modern Views of Elements and Matter: A Review of Basic Chemistry	6	(1)
Grouping of Elements and the Periodic Chart	6	(2)
Atoms and Elements	8	(2)
The Bohr Model	8	(1)
Modifications to the Bohr Model	9	(1)
Ions	10	(1)
The Modern Periodic Table	11	(3)
Periods	11	(2)
Groups	13	(1)
Atomic Number and Mass	13	(1)
Box 1.2 What Is a Mole of Quartz?	14	(1)
Bonding in Minerals	14	(3)
Box 1.3 Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Crystals	15	(2)
Origin of the Elements and the Earth	17	(1)
Hubble's Contributions	17	(1)
In the Beginning	17	(1)
The Formation of Our Solar System	18	(1)
Abundant Elements and Minerals	18	(3)
Goldschmidt's Classification	18	(1)
Abundance of Elements	19	(1)
Anionic Complexes	19	(2)
Box 1.4 Chemical Formulas o f Minerals	21	(1)
Major Elements, Minor Elements, and Trace Elements	21	(3)
Box 1.5 How To Normalize a Mineral Analysis	22	(2)
Questions for Thought	24	(1)
Resources	24	(1)
General References	25	(1)
Crystallization and Classification of Minerals	26	(19)
Crystals and Crystallization	26	(3)
Box 2.1 Pegmatites Contain the Largest Crystals	28	(1)
Crystal Imperfections: Defects	29	(1)
Crystal Imperfections: Compositional Zoning	30	(1)
Crystal Imperfections: Twinning	30	(1)
Igneous Minerals	31	(2)
Box 2.2 Making Glass from Minerals	32	(1)
Minerals That Precipitate from Aqueous Solutions	33	(1)
Metamorphic and Diagenetic Minerals	34	(1)
Common Rocks and Minerals	35	(1)
Life Spans of Minerals	36	(1)
The Laws of Thermodynamics	37	(1)
Box 2.3 Scientific Laws, Theories, and Hypotheses	37	(1)
Classification of Minerals	38	(2)
A Classified List of Minerals	40	(3)
Box 2.4 Plotting Mineral Compositions	41	(2)
Questions for Thought	43	(1)
Resources	43	(2)
Mineral Properties: Hand Specimen Mineralogy	45	(18)
Identification of Minerals	45	(1)
Mineral Appearance	46	(2)
Luster	46	(1)
Diaphaneity	46	(1)
Color	47	(1)
Streak	48	(1)
Luminescence	48	(1)
Play of Colors	48	(1)
Crystal Shape	48	(2)
Box 3.1 What's Wrong With This Picture?	49	(1)
Strength and Breaking of Minerals	50	(7)
Tenacity	50	(2)
Box 3.2 Asbestiform Minerals and Health Risks	52	(1)
Fracture, Cleavage, and Parting	53	(2)
Hardness	55	(1)
Box 3.3 Hard and Soft Minerals	56	(1)
Density and Specific Gravity	57	(2)
Magnetism of Minerals	59	(1)
Electrical Properties	60	(1)
Box 3.4 What Is a Pycnometer?	60	(1)
Reaction to Dilute Hydrochloric Acid	61	(1)
Other Properties	61	(1)
Questions for Thought	61	(1)
Resources	61	(2)
Optical Mineralogy	63	(25)
What Is Light?	64	(3)
The Properties of Light	64	(1)
Box 4.1 Optical Classification of Minerals	64	(1)
Interference	65	(2)
Polarization of Light and the Polarizing Microscope	67	(3)
Polarized Light	67	(1)
Polarizing Microscopes	67	(2)
Box 4.2 Identifying Minerals with a Polarizing Microscope	69	(1)
Colors in Plane Polarized (PP) Light and Crossed Polarized (XP) Light	70	(1)
The Velocity of Light in Crystals and the Refractive Index	70	(3)
Snell's Law and Light Refraction	71	(1)
Relief and Becke Lines	72	(1)
Interaction of Light and Crystals	73	(10)
Double Refraction	73	(2)
Crystals Between Crossed Polars	75	(1)
Interference Colors	75	(1)
Uniaxial and Biaxial Minerals	75	(3)
Box 4.3 Determining the Extinction Angle and the Sign of Elongation	78	(2)
Accessory Plates and the Sign of Elongation	80	(1)
Uniaxial Interference Figures	80	(1)
Biaxial Interference Figures	80	(1)
Box 4.4 Obtaining an Interference Figure	81	(1)
Box 4.5 Determining the Optic Sign of a Uniaxial Mineral	82	(1)
Other Mineral Characteristics in Thin Sections	83	(4)
Cleavage	83	(1)
Twinning	83	(1)
Box 4.6 The Four Kinds of Oriented Biaxial Interference Figures	84	(2)
Box 4.7 Determining Sign and 2V from a Bxa Figure	86	(1)
Box 4.8 Determining Sign and 2V from an Optic Axis Figure	87	(1)
Questions for Thought	87	(1)
Resources	87	(1)
Igneous Rocks and Silicate Minerals	88	(29)
Magmas and Igneous Rocks	88	(1)
Compositions of Igneous Rocks	89	(1)
Mafic and Silicic Magmas	89	(1)
Volatiles	89	(1)
Box 5.1 Compositions of Magmas Producing Igneous Rocks (oxide wt. %)	90	(1)
Crystallization of Magmas	90	(3)
Equilibrium Between Crystals and Melt	90	(1)
Bowen's Reaction Series	91	(2)
Disequilibrium	93	(1)
Silicate Minerals	93	(17)
SiO2 Polymorphs	93	(2)
Box 5.2 Experimental Petrology and Phase Diagrams	95	(1)
Feldspar Group	96	(1)
Box 5.3 How to Use Triangular Diagrams	97	(2)
Box 5.4 Miscibility Gaps	99	(1)
Box 5.5 The Plagioclase Phase Diagram and Fractional Crystallization	100	(2)
Feldspathoid Group	102	(1)
Mica Group	102	(1)
Chain Silicates	102	(1)
Pyroxene Group	103	(3)
Amphibole Group	106	(1)
Box 5.6 Diopside-Enstatite Solvus and Geothermometry	107	(2)
Olivine Group	109	(1)
Other Minerals in Igneous Rocks	109	(1)
The Naming of Igneous Rocks	110	(1)
Simple Classification Scheme	110	(1)
Mineral Modes	110	(1)
Common Types of Igneous Rock	110	(5)
Silicic Igneous Rocks (>20% Quartz)	110	(2)
Intermediate and Mafic Igneous Rocks (0-20% Quartz)	112	(2)
Ultramafic Igneous Rocks	114	(1)
Box 5.7 Minerals from the Moon	115	(1)
Questions for Thought	115	(1)
Resources	116	(1)
Sedimentary Minerals and Sedimentary Rocks	117	(16)
Weathering	118	(2)
Transportation, Deposition, and Lithification	120	(1)
Sedimentary Minerals	120	(7)
Silicates	120	(1)
Clay Minerals	120	(1)
Box 6.1 Zeolites	121	(2)
Carbonate Minerals	123	(1)
Box 6.2 Clays Used in Industry, Arts, and Ceramics	123	(1)
Box 6.3 Lime Kilns, Mortar, and Cement	123	(1)
Sulfate Minerals	124	(2)
Halides	126	(1)
Chert	126	(1)
Common Sedimentary Rocks	127	(4)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks	127	(1)
Box 6.4 Gypsum: Ingredient of Plaster and Sheetrock	128	(1)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	128	(1)
Box 6.5 Disposal of Radioactive Waste in Salt Domes	129	(1)
Box 6.6 Did the Mediterranean Sea Repeatedly Dry up in the Past?	130	(1)
Other Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	130	(1)
Box 6.7 Iron Formation	131	(1)
Diagenesis	131	(1)
Box 6.8 Laterites and Bauxites	131	(1)
Questions for Thought	132	(1)
Resources	132	(1)
Metamorphic Minerals and Metamorphic Rocks	133	(22)
The Causes of Metamorphism	133	(3)
Box 7.1 Extremes of Metamorphism	135	(1)
Metamorphic Textures	136	(1)
Metamorphic Minerals	137	(1)
Metamorphic Facies	138	(2)
Some Common Types of Metamorphic Rock	140	(5)
Metamorphosed Pelitic Rocks (Metapelites)	140	(2)
Metamorphosed Psammitic Rocks (Metapsammites)	142	(1)
Metamorphosed Mafic Rocks (Metabasites)	142	(1)
Metamorphosed Limestones and Dolostones (Marbles)	142	(2)
Metamorphosed Ultramafic Rocks and Iron Formations	144	(1)
Metamorphosed Granitic Rocks	144	(1)
High-Pressure Rocks	145	(1)
Metamorphic Reactions	145	(1)
Equilibrium	146	(2)
Box 7.2 Examples of Metamorphic Reactions	146	(1)
Box 7.3 Thermodynamic Laws and Definitions	147	(1)
Metamorphic Phase Diagrams and the Phase Rule	148	(1)
The Thermodynamics of Reactions	149	(4)
The Gibbs Free Energy	149	(2)
Changes in Gibbs Energy With Pressure and Temperature	151	(1)
Box 7.4 Using Phase Diagrams To Interpret Rocks	152	(1)
Questions for Thought	153	(1)
Resources	154	(1)
Ore Deposits and Economic Minerals	155	(18)
Mineral Use and Profitability	155	(2)
Types of Ore Deposits	157	(3)
Magmatic Ore Deposits	158	(1)
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits	158	(1)
Box 8.1 Strategic Minerals and Metals	159	(1)
Sedimentary Ore Deposits	160	(1)
Ore Minerals	160	(7)
Native Elements: Metals, Semimetals, and Nonmetals	162	(2)
Box 8.2 The Witwatersrand Gold Deposits	164	(1)
Sulfides and Sulfosalts	164	(1)
Oxides and Hydroxides	165	(1)
Box 8.3 Another Look at the Phase Rule and Cu-Fe Sulfide Minerals	166	(1)
Gems and Gem Minerals	167	(4)
Synthetic Gems and Color Alteration	167	(1)
Box 8.4 The World's Major Diamond Producers	168	(2)
Cutting and Polishing Gems	170	(1)
Box 8.5 Mining, the Environment, and Politics	171	(1)
Questions for Thought	171	(1)
Resources	172	(1)
PART II: SYMMETRY, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE	173	(122)
Crystal Morphology and Symmetry	175	(31)
Symmetry	175	(5)
Mirror Planes	175	(2)
Rotational Symmetry	177	(1)
Inversion Centers	178	(2)
Symmetry Is a Property	180	(1)
Stereo Diagrams	180	(7)
Symmetry on Stereo Diagrams	180	(1)
Special Points and General Points	181	(1)
Rotoinversion	182	(2)
Combinations of Symmetry Elements: Point Groups	184	(1)
Special Angles and General Angles	185	(2)
Forms and Crystal Morphology	187	(8)
Forms	187	(1)
Box 9.1 Proper Rotation Axes and Stereo Diagrams	188	(2)
Box 9.2 Rotation Axes With Perpendicular Mirror Planes	190	(1)
Box 9.3 Rotoinversion and Stereo Diagrams	191	(1)
Combinations of Forms	192	(2)
Box 9.4 Names of the Most Important Forms	194	(1)
Plotting Crystal Faces on a Stereo Diagram	195	(3)
Box 9.5 Plotting Crystal Faces on a Stereo Diagram	196	(2)
Point Groups and Crystal Systems	198	(7)
Box 9.6 Hermann-Mauguin Symbols	203	(2)
Questions for Thought	205	(2100)
Resources	205	(1)
Crystallography	206	(31)
Observations in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries	206	(2)
Unit Cells and Lattices in Two Dimensions	208	(7)
Shapes of Unit Cells in Two Dimensions	208	(2)
Motifs and Lattices	210	(2)
Box 10.1 Choices of a Unit Cell	212	(3)
Symmetry of the Motif and the Lattice	215	(1)
Unit Cells and Lattices in Three Dimensions	215	(6)
What Shapes Are Possible?	215	(1)
Box 10.2 Lattices and Vectors in Two Dimensions	216	(2)
Cells With Extra Lattice Points	218	(2)
Box 10.3 vectors and Space Lattices	220	(1)
Bravais Lattices	221	(1)
Unit Cell Symmetry and Crystal Symmetry	222	(3)
Point Groups and Crystal Systems	225	(4)
Symmetry of Three-Dimensional Crystal Structures	229	(3)
Space Group Operators	229	(1)
Screw Axes	229	(1)
Glide Planes	230	(1)
Space Groups	230	(2)
Crystal Habit and Crystal Faces	232	(4)
Box 10.4 Why Are There Only 230 Space Groups?	233	(3)
Questions for Thought	236	(1)
Resources	236	(1)
Unit Cells, Points, Lines, and Planes	237	(14)
Unit Cell Parameters and Crystallographic Axes	237	(3)
The Composition of Unit Cells	240	(1)
Points in Unit Cells	240	(2)
Lines and Directions in Crystals	242	(1)
Planes in Crystals	242	(3)
Miller Indices	244	(1)
Crystal Forms and the Miller Index	245	(5)
General Forms and Special Forms	246	(1)
Box 11.1 The Miller Indices of Planes Within a Crystal Structure	246	(1)
Zones and Zone Axes	247	(2)
Box 11.2 Comparison of a Hexoctahedron With Other Forms in the Cubic System	249	(1)
Questions for Thought	250	(1)
Resources	250	(1)
X-ray Diffraction	251	(20)
What Are X-Rays?	252	(1)
Box 12.1 X-ray Tube	253	(1)
Interactions of X-Rays and Atoms	253	(1)
Interference of X-ray Waves	254	(1)
Diffraction by a Row of Atoms	254	(2)
Planes of Atoms	256	(3)
The Distance Between Planes in Crystals	256	(1)
Diffraction by Planes of Atoms	256	(2)
Box 12.2 Cell Parameters and d-values	258	(1)
Intensity of Diffraction	259	(1)
Diffraction at Different Angles	259	(1)
Extinctions	260	(1)
Single Crystal Diffraction	260	(3)
Routine X-ray Analyses	263	(6)
Powder Diffraction	263	(2)
Identifying Minerals from Powder Patterns	265	(2)
Box 12.3 Example of Data from Powder Diffraction File Data Set	267	(1)
Box 12.4 Identification of Minerals from X-ray Patterns the Old Way	268	(1)
Indexing Patterns and Determining Cell Parameters	268	(1)
Box 12.5 Indexing a Garnet Pattern and Determining a	269	(1)
Questions for Thought	269	(1)
Resources	270	(1)
Atomic Structure	271	(24)
The Impact of X-ray Crystallography	271	(1)
Ionic Crystals	271	(1)
Ionic Radii	272	(2)
Coordination Number	274	(1)
Closest Packing	274	(3)
Packing in Two Dimensions	274	(1)
Packing in Three Dimensions	275	(1)
Exceptions to Closest Packing	275	(2)
Pauling's Rules	277	(5)
Pauling's Rule 1	277	(1)
Box 13.1 Why Are They Called Hexagonal Closest Packed (HCP) and Cubic Closest Packed (CCP)?	278	(1)
Box 13.2 Pauling's Rules	279	(1)
Box 13.3 Who Was Linus Pauling?	280	(1)
Pauling's Rule 2	281	(1)
Pauling's Rule 3	282	(1)
Pauling's Rule 4	282	(1)
Pauling's Rule 5	282	(1)
Oxygen and Other Common Elements	282	(2)
Silicate Structures in General	284	(2)
Elemental Substitutions in Silicates	286	(1)
Structures of the Basic Silicate Subclasses	287	(4)
Framework Silicates	287	(1)
Sheet Silicates	288	(1)
Chain Silicates	288	(1)
Ring Silicates	289	(1)
Paired Tetrahedral Silicates	289	(1)
Isolated Tetrahedral Silicates	290	(1)
Structures and Chemistry of Nonsilicates	291	(2)
Questions for Thought	293	(1)
Resources	293	(2)
PART III: MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS	295	(106)
Descriptions of Minerals	297	(104)
Framework Silicates	298	(14)
Sheet Silicates	312	(9)
Chain Silicates	321	(10)
Ring Silicates	331	(1)
Isolated Tetrahedral Silicates	332	(12)
Paired Tetrahedral Silicates	344	(2)
Native Elements	346	(4)
Sulfides	350	(11)
Halides	361	(3)
Oxides	364	(8)
Hydroxides	372	(4)
Carbonates and Nitrates	376	(8)
Borates	384	(3)
Sulfates	387	(4)
Tungstates, Molybdates, and Chromates	391	(2)
Phosphates, Vanadates, and Arsenates	393	(8)
Appendix A: Classified List of Minerals	401	(5)
Appendix B: Mineral Identification Tables	406	(25)
Appendix C: Minerals Separated by Optic System and Sign, and Ordered by Index of Refraction	431	(5)
Appendix D: Minerals Ordered by Birefringence and Interference Colors in Thin Section	436	(4)
Appendix E: Minerals Ordered by Hardness	440	(4)
Appendix F: Minerals Ordered by Specific Gravity	444	(4)
Glossary	448	(16)
Mineral Index and List of Mineral Properties	464	(9)
Subject Index	473

Excerpts

Several excellent mineralogy texts are available today. They are well written, contain good figures and tables, and are complete. In short, they make excellent reference books, and I am glad I have them on my shelf. However, in my experience they are not appropriate for undergraduate mineralogy courses because they do not stimulate students or present information in ways that help students learn. Of course, the most enthusiastic and self-motivated students always do well and enjoy learning, and they may enjoy any well-written book, but many of my students are not of this ilk. They are good students, but many of them have, over the years, expressed frustration and dissatisfaction with mineralogy texts and, consequently, the way that mineralogy is taught.As I see it, the major problem is one of thinking. In particular, it is a problem stemming from scientific minds that picture the world as a bunch of facts that, when combined, add up to big pictures. I find that most mineralogy students are bored by facts and often have not developed the imagination or perseverance needed to see their implications. As a scientist, I don't have a problem starting with atoms and atomic theory and building to molecules, crystals, rocks, regions, continents, and the Earth. I have no problem spending time discussing symmetry before I discuss minerals. It doesn't bother me if a class or an article never gets beyond interesting details and abstractions, or if a particular topic is never fully related to any other. However, as a teacher, I find that the scientific way of thinking is not the students' way of learning. Most students, in fact, seem to learn best by starting with the big things they know and understand--a rock or a pretty crystal, for instance--and then focusing on details and, finally, abstractions. They are interested and stimulated only when they understand the context and implications of the material they are learning. This means that the order and presentation of subjects in available mineralogy books are in many ways opposite from what can best promote learning.Most of today's students won't be mineralogists and few will be petrologists. They don't need to know all the details of crystallography, crystal chemistry, and many other things we have taught in the past. Instead, they need to know how to think, they need to appreciate science and how it works, and, if they are to go on to careers in the Earth sciences, they need to know how minerals fit into a bigger picture.This is the second edition ofMineralogybut, like the first, it approaches the subject of mineralogy from a student's perspective. My goal is to provide a book that students will enjoy reading and that will help them learn and become excited about the science I have made my career. I have tried to emphasize ideas and thinking and to relate mineralogy to other sciences. Consequently, I have deemphasized facts and sacrificed some completeness. Most, but not all, of the same material found in other mineralogy books is included, but the order, presentation, and depth of coverage are different. Mineralogical purists may say that I have strayed into different disciplines or that I have omitted some important details. Of these crimes I am guilty; but I have not done this without thought, and I hope that my thinking has been consistent with my goals.When I wrote the first edition of this book, I was asked what would make it different and successful. I am not sure what makes a book successful, but the most important things that make this book different from others are With the exception of the first chapter, topics are covered beginning with the big, easy-to-see picture and ending with the details and theory. Topics are not completely divided into separate chapters as in many books; there is overlap and some redundancy. In an attempt to put mineralogy in context, I have placed more emphasis on petrol