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The book offers a comprehensive overview of the latest technologies and techniques used in forensic investigations and highlights the potential impact of these advancements on the field.
Technology has played a pivotal role in advancing forensic science over the years, particularly in modern-day criminal investigations. In recent years, significant advancements in forensic tools and devices have enabled investigators to gather and analyze evidence more efficiently than ever. Modern Forensic Tools and Devices: Trends in Criminal Investigation is a comprehensive guide to the latest technologies and techniques used in forensic science.
This book covers a wide range of topics, from computer forensics and personal digital assistants to emerging analytical techniques for forensic samples. A section of the book provides detailed explanations of each technology and its applications in forensic investigations, along with case studies and real-life examples to illustrate their effectiveness.
One critical aspect of this book is its focus on emerging trends in forensic science. The book covers new technologies such as cloud and social media forensics, vehicle forensics, facial recognition and reconstruction, automated fingerprint identification systems, and sensor-based devices for trace evidence, to name a few. Its thoroughly detailed chapters expound upon spectroscopic analytical techniques in forensic science, DNA sequencing, rapid DNA tests, bio-mimetic devices for evidence detection, forensic photography, scanners, microscopes, and recent advancements in forensic tools. The book also provides insights into forensic sampling and sample preparation techniques, which are crucial for ensuring the reliability of forensic evidence. Furthermore, the book explains the importance of proper sampling and the role it plays in the accuracy of forensic analysis.
Audience
The book is an essential resource for forensic scientists, law enforcement officials, and anyone interested in the advancements in forensic science such as engineers, materials scientists, and device makers.
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD is an Adjunct Professor, Academic Advisor and Director of Chemistry & EVSc Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the Analytical Chemistry, Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials, Sustainability, Environmental Management and Various Industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and books in his research fields.
Deepak Rawtani, C.Eng received his ME in Biotechnology from BITS Pilani and PhD in Nanobiotechnology. He has work experience of over 16 years mostly in the field of molecular medicine and biology at various research organisations like USV Limited, Mumbai and Torrent Research Centre, Ahmadabad. For the last nine years, he is serving as an Associate Professor of Forensic Nanotechnology at the Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar. His research focus is on functionalization of Halloysite Nanotubes, Delivery of biomolecules and drugs immobilization. Besides being a Researcher, he is also a NABL empanelled Technical Assessor in the field of Forensic Biology and Pharmaceuticals.
Preface xix
1 Computer Forensics and Personal Digital Assistants 1
Muhammad Qadeer, Chaudhery Ghazanfer Hussain and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Computer and Digital Forensics 2
1.2 Digital Forensics Classification 3
1.3 Digital Evidence 8
1.4 Information Used in Investigation to Find Digital Evidence 8
1.5 Short History of Digital/Computer Forensics 10
1.6 The World of Crimes 12
1.6.1 Cybercrimes vs. Traditional Crimes 12
1.7 Computer Forensics Investigation Steps 15
1.8 Report Generation of Forensic Findings Through Software Tools 17
1.9 Importance of Forensics Report 18
1.10 Guidelines for Report Writing 18
1.11 Objectives of Computer Forensics 19
1.12 Challenges Faced by Computer Forensics 20
References 20
2 Network and Data Analysis Tools for Forensic Science 23
Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash and Amarnath Mishra
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Necessity for Data Analysis 25
2.2.1 Operational Troubleshooting 25
2.2.2 Log Monitoring 25
2.2.3 Data Recovery 25
2.2.4 Data Acquisition 25
2.3 Data Analysis Process 26
2.3.1 Acquisition 26
2.3.2 Examination 26
2.3.3 Utilization 26
2.3.4 Review 26
2.4 Network Security and Forensics 26
2.5 Digital Forensic Investigation Process 27
2.5.1 Data Identification 28
2.5.2 Project Planning 28
2.5.3 Data Capture 29
2.5.4 Data Processing 29
2.5.5 Data Analysis 29
2.5.6 Report Generation 29
2.6 Tools for Network and Data Analysis 29
2.6.1 EnCase Forensic Imager Tool 30
2.6.2 Cellebrite UFED 31
2.6.3 FTK Imager Tool 31
2.6.4 Paladin Forensic Suite 32
2.6.5 Digital Forensic Framework (DFF) 32
2.6.6 Forensic Imager Tx 1 32
2.6.7 Tableau TD2U Forensic Duplicator 32
2.6.8 Oxygen Forensics Detective 33
2.6.9 SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit (SIFT) 33
2.6.10 Win Hex 33
2.6.11 Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) 34
2.6.12 WindowsSCOPE Toolkit 34
2.6.13 ProDiscover Forensics 34
2.6.14 Sleuth Kit 35
2.6.15 Caine 35
2.6.16 Magnet RAM Capture 35
2.6.17 X-Ways Forensics 36
2.6.18 WireShark Tool 36
2.6.19 Xplico 36
2.6.20 e-Fensee 36
2.7 Evolution of Network Data Analysis Tools Over the Years 37
2.8 Conclusion 37
References 38
3 Cloud and Social Media Forensics 41
Nilay Mistry and Sureel Vora
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Background Study 42
3.2.1 Social Networking Trend Among Users 42
3.2.2 Pros and Cons of Social Networking and Chat Apps 43
3.2.3 Privacy Issues in Social Networking and Chat Apps 44
3.2.4 Usefulness of Personal Information for Law Enforcements 45
3.2.5 Cloud Computing and Social Media Applications 45
3.2.5.1 SaaS Model 45
3.2.5.2 PaaS Model 46
3.2.5.3 IaaS Model 46
3.3 Technical Study 46
3.3.1 User-Agent and Its Working 46
3.3.2 Automated Agents and Their User-Agent String 47
3.3.3 User Agent Spoofing and Sniffing 47
3.3.4 Link Forwarding and Rich Preview 47
3.3.5 WebView and its User Agent 48
3.3.6 HTTP Referrer and Referring Page 48
3.3.7 Application ID 48
3.4 Methodology 49
3.4.1 Testing Environment 49
3.4.2 Research and Analysis 49
3.4.2.1 Activities Performed 51
3.4.2.2 Information Gathered 52
3.4.2.3 Analysis of Gathered Information 53
3.4.3 Activity Performed - Opening the Forwarded Link 59
3.5 Protection Against Leakage 60
3.6 Conclusion 60
3.7 Future Work 61
References 61
4 Vehicle Forensics 65
Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao
4.1 Introduction 65
4.1.1 Motives Behind Vehicular Theft 67
4.1.1.1 Insurance Fraud 67
4.1.1.2 Resale and Export 67
4.1.1.3 Temporary Transportation 68
4.1.1.4 Commitment of Another Crime 68
4.2 Intervehicle Communication and Vehicle Internal Networks 68
4.3 Classification of Vehicular Forensics 70
4.3.1 Automative Vehicle Forensics 71
4.3.1.1 Live Forensics 71
4.3.1.2 Post-Mortem Forensics 71
4.3.1.3 Physical Tools for Forensic Investigation 73
4.3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Forensics (UAV)/Drone Forensics 74
4.3.2.1 Methodology 74
4.3.2.2 Steps Involved in Drone Forensics 75
4.3.2.3 Challenges in UAV Forensics 76
4.4 Vehicle Identification Number 76
4.4.1 Placement in a Vehicle and Usage of a VIN 77
4.4.2 Vehicle Identification 78
4.4.2.1 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Certification Label 79
4.4.2.2 Anti-Theft Label 79
4.4.2.3 Stamping on Vehicle Parts 79
4.4.2.4 Secondary and Confidential VIN 79
4.5 Serial Number Restoration 79
4.5.1 Restoration Methods 80
4.5.1.1 Chemical Etching 80
4.5.1.2 Electrolytic Etching 81
4.5.1.3 Heat Treatment 81
4.5.1.4 Magnetic Particle Method 81
4.5.1.5 Electron Channeling Contrast 81
4.6 Conclusion 81
References 82
5 Facial Recognition and Reconstruction 85
Payal V. Bhatt, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Facial Recognition 86
5.3 Facial Reconstruction 87
5.4 Techniques for Facial Recognition 88
5.4.1 Image-Based Facial Recognition 89
5.4.1.1 Appearance-Based Method 89
5.4.1.2 Model-Based Method 90
5.4.1.3 Texture-Based Method 90
5.4.2 Video-Based Facial Recognition 91
5.4.2.1 Sequence-Based Method 91
5.4.2.2 Set-Based Method 92
5.5 Techniques for Facial Reconstruction 92
5.5.1 Manual Method 93
5.5.2 Graphical Method 94
5.5.3 Computerized Method 94
5.6 Challenges in Forensic Face Recognition 95
5.6.1 Facial Aging 96
5.6.2 Face Marks 97
5.6.3 Forensic Sketch Recognition 97
5.6.4 Face Recognition in Video 98
5.6.5 Near Infrared (NIR) Face Recognition 99
5.7 Soft Biometrics 99
5.8 Application Areas of Facial Recognition 100
5.9 Application of Facial Reconstruction 101
5.10 Conclusion 102
References 102
6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 107
Piyush K. Rao, Shreya Singh, Aayush Dey, Deepak Rawtani and Garvita Parikh
Abbreviations 108
6.1 Introduction 108
6.2 Ten-Digit Fingerprint Classification 110
6.3 Henry Faulds Classification System 110
6.4 Manual Method for the Identification of Latent Fingerprint 111
6.5 Need for Automation 112
6.6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 112
6.7 History of Automatic Fingerprint Identification System 113
6.8 Automated Method of Analysis 113
6.9 Segmentation 114
6.10 Enhancement and Quality Assessment 115
6.11 Feature Extraction 117
6.12 Latent Fingerprint Matching 118
6.13 Latent Fingerprint Database 120
6.14 Conclusion 120
References 121
7 Forensic Sampling and Sample Preparation 125
Disha Bhatnagar, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani
7.1 Introduction 126
7.2 Advancement in Technologies Used in Forensic Science 126
7.3 Evidences 127
7.3.1 Classification of Evidences 127
7.3.1.1 Direct Evidence 127
7.2.1.2 Circumstantial Evidence 127
7.4 Collection of Evidences 129
7.4.1 Sampling Methods 130
7.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Analytical Instruments 133
7.5.1 Conventional Methods of Sample Preparation 134
7.5.2 Solvent Extraction 134
7.5.2.1 Distillation 135
7.5.2.2 Acid Digestion 135
7.5.2.3 Solid Phase Extraction 136
7.5.2.4 Soxhlet Extraction 137
7.5.3 Modern Methods of Sample Preparation 138
7.5.3.1 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 138
7.5.3.2 Microwave Digestion 138
7.5.3.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction 139
7.5.3.4 Microextraction 139
7.5.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 142
7.5.3.6 QuEChERS 143
7.5.3.7 Membrane Extraction 143
7.6 Conclusion 144
7.7 Future Perspective 144
References 145
8 Spectroscopic Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science 149
Payal V. Bhatt and Deepak Rawtani
8.1 Introduction 150
8.2 Spectroscopy 150
8.2.1 Spectroscopy and its Applications 153
8.3 Spectroscopy and Forensics 155
8.4 Spectroscopic Techniques and their Forensic Applications 156
8.4.1 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 156
8.4.1.1 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 157
8.4.2 UV/Visible Spectroscopy 159
8.4.2.1 Application of UV/Vis Spectroscopy in Forensics 160
8.4.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 162
8.4.3.1 Application of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 163
8.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 165
8.4.4.1 Application of Infrared Spectroscopy in Forensics 166
8.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 167
8.4.5.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Forensics 168
8.4.6 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy 171
8.4.6.1 Application of Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 172
8.4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 173
8.4.7.1 Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 174
8.4.8 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 176
8.4.8.1 Application of Atomic Emission Spectroscopy in Forensics 177
8.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 178
8.4.9.1 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 179
8.4.10 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 181
8.4.10.1 Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 182
8.4.11 Phosphorescence Spectroscopy 183
8.4.11.1 Application of Phosphorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 184
8.4.12 Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy 186
8.4.12.1 Application of Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 187
8.4.13 Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy 188
8.4.13.1 Application of Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 189
8.5 Conclusion 190
References 190
9 Emerging Analytical Techniques in Forensic Samples 199
Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao
9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 Separation Techniques 200
9.2.1 Chromatography 200
9.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography 202
9.2.2 Liquid Chromatography 208
9.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 211
9.3 Mass Spectrometry 213
9.4 Tandem Mass (MS/MS) 219
9.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 220
9.6 Laser Ablation–Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 221
9.7 Conclusion 222
References 223
10 DNA Sequencing and Rapid DNA Tests 225
Archana Singh and Deepak Rawtani
10.1 Introduction 226
10.1.1 DNA Sequencing 226
10.1.2 DNA Profiling Analysis Methods 228
10.1.3 The Rapid DNA Test 228
10.2 DNA – The Hereditary Material 230
10.2.1 DNA – Structure and Genetic Information 230
10.3 DNA Sequencing 231
10.3.1 Maxam and Gilbert Method 232
10.3.2 Chain Termination Method or Sanger’s Sequencing 233
10.3.3 Automated Method 235
10.3.4 Semiautomated Method 235
10.3.5 Pyrosequencing Method 236
10.3.6 Clone by Clone Sequencing Method 237
10.3.7 The Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Method 237
10.3.8 Next-Generation DNA Sequencing 238
10.4 Laboratory Processing and DNA Evidence Analysis 238
10.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 239
10.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 239
10.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) 241
10.4.4 Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) 241
10.4.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (aflp) 242
10.4.6 Y-Chromosome 242
10.5 Rapid DNA Test 243
10.5.1 The Evolution of the Rapid DNA Test 244
10.5.2 Rapid DNA Instrument 245
10.5.3 Methodology of Rapid DNA 250
10.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 250
References 251
11 Sensor-Based Devices for Trace Evidence 265
Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani
11.1 Introduction 266
11.2 Immunosensors in Forensic Science 267
11.2.1 Direct Immunosensing Strategies 268
11.2.1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 268
11.2.1.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 274
11.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 275
11.2.2 Indirect Immunosensing Strategies 276
11.2.2.1 Optical Immunosensors 276
11.2.2.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 280
11.3 Genosensors and Cell-Based Biosensors in Forensic Science 282
11.4 Aptasensors in Forensic Science 283
11.4.1 Forensic Applications of Aptasensors 287
11.5 Enzymatic Biosensors in Forensic Science 288
11.5.1 Applications of Enzymatic Biosensors for Trace Evidence Analysis 289
11.6 Conclusion 289
References 290
12 Biomimetic Devices for Trace Evidence Detection 299
Manika and Astha Pandey
12.1 Introduction 300
12.2 Tools or Machines for Biomimetics 301
12.3 Methods of Biomimetics 302
12.4 Applications 302
12.4.1 Detection of Trace Evidences 302
12.4.1.1 Biomimetic Sniffing 302
12.4.1.2 L-Nicotine Detection 307
12.4.1.3 TNT Detection 307
12.4.2 Hybrid Materials to Medical Devices 309
12.4.2.1 Smart Drug Delivery Micro and Nanodevices 309
12.4.2.2 Nanodevices for Combination of Therapy and Theranostics 310
12.4.2.3 Continuous Biosensors for Glucose 310
12.4.2.4 Electro-Active Lenses 311
12.4.2.5 Smart Tattoos 311
12.5 Challenges for Biomimetics in Practice 311
12.6 Conclusion 312
References 314
13 Forensic Photography 315
Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani
13.1 Introduction 316
13.2 Forensic Photography and Its Purpose 316
13.3 Modern Principles of Forensic Photography 318
13.4 Fundamental Rules of Forensic Photography 319
13.4.1 Rule Number 1. Filling the Frame Space 319
13.4.2 Rule Number 2. Expansion of Depth of Field 320
13.4.3 Rule Number 3. Positioning the Film Plane 321
13.5 Camera Setup and Apparatus for Forensic Photography 321
13.6 The Dynamics of a Digital Camera 322
13.6.1 Types of Digital Cameras 323
13.6.2 Sensor Architecture 324
13.6.2.1 Full Frame 324
13.6.2.2 Frame Transfer 325
13.6.2.3 Interline Architecture 325
13.6.3 Spectral Response 325
13.6.4 Light Sensitivity and Noise Cancellation 326
13.6.5 Dynamic Range 326
13.6.6 Blooming and Anti-Blooming 326
13.6.7 Signal to Noise Ratio 326
13.6.8 Spatial Resolution 327
13.6.9 Frame Rate 327
13.7 Common Crime Scenarios and How They Must be Photographed 327
13.7.1 Photography of Road Traffic Accidents 328
13.7.2 Photography of Homicides 329
13.7.3 Arson Crime Scenes 330
13.7.4 Photography of Print Impressions at a Crime Scene 330
13.7.5 Tire Marks and Their Photography 331
13.7.6 Photography of Skin Wounds 331
13.8 Conclusion 332
References 332
14 Scanners and Microscopes 335
Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani
14.1 Introduction 336
14.2 Scanners in Forensic Science 337
14.2.1 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338
14.2.1.1 Benefits of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338
14.2.1.2 Drawbacks of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338
14.2.1.3 Applications in Forensic Science 339
14.2.2 Structured Light Scanners 341
14.2.2.1 Applications in Forensic Science 341
14.2.3 Intraoral Optical Scanners 342
14.2.3.1 Applications in Forensic Science 342
14.2.4 Computerized Tomography Scanner 343
14.2.4.1 Applications in Forensic Science 343
14.3 Microscopes in Forensic Science 344
14.3.1 Light Microscopes 345
14.3.1.1 Compound Microscope 345
14.3.1.2 Comparison Microscope 347
14.3.1.3 Polarizing Microscope 348
14.3.1.4 Stereoscopic Microscope 348
14.3.2 Electron Microscopes 349
14.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 349
14.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 350
14.3.3 Probing Microscopes 350
14.3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscope 350
14.4 Conclusion 355
References 356
15 Recent Advances in Forensic Tools 361
Tatenda Justice Gunda, Charles Muchabaiwa, Piyush K. Rao, Aayush Dey and Deepak Rawtani
15.1 Introduction 362
15.1.1 Recent Forensic Tool: Trends in Crime Investigations 363
15.1.2 Recent Forensic Device 364
15.2 Classification of Forensic Tools and Devices 364
15.2.1 Forensic Chemistry 365
15.2.1.1 Sensors 365
15.2.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 368
15.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 369
15.2.1.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 370
15.2.1.5 Liquid Chromatography (LC/MS/MS) Rapid Toxicology Screening System 370
15.2.1.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 372
15.2.1.7 Drug Testing Toxicology of Hair 372
15.2.2 Question Document and Fingerprinting 373
15.2.2.1 Electrostatic Detection Analysis (esda) 374
15.2.2.2 Video Spectral Comparator 375
15.2.2.3 Fingerprinting 376
15.2.3 Forensic Physics 377
15.2.3.1 Facial Recognition 377
15.2.3.2 3D Facial Reconstruction 378
15.2.3.3 Arsenal Automated Ballistic Identification System (ABIS) 378
15.2.3.4 Audio Video Aided Forensic Analysis 379
15.2.3.5 Brain Electrical Oscillations Signature (beos) 379
15.2.3.6 Phenom Desktop Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 379
15.2.3.7 X-Ray Spectroscopy EDX 380
15.2.3.8 Drones/UAVs 380
15.2.4 Forensic Biology 382
15.2.4.1 Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) 384
15.2.4.2 Virtopsy 384
15.2.4.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging System 385
15.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 385
References 386
16 Future Aspects of Modern Forensic Tools and Devices 393
Swathi Satish, Gargi Phadke and Deepak Rawtani
16.1 Introduction 394
16.2 Forensic Tools 395
16.2.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Tools 396
16.2.2 Future Facets of Forensic Tools 397
16.2.2.1 Analytical Forensic Tools 397
16.2.2.2 Digital Forensic Tools 399
16.3 Forensic Devices 403
16.3.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Devices 403
16.3.2 Future Aspects of Forensic Devices 404
16.4 Conclusion 409
References 410
Index 415
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