Mosquitoes and Their Control

by Becker, Norbert; Petric, Dusan; Boase, Clive; Lane, John; Zgomba, Marija; Dahl, Christine; Kaiser, Achim

• ISBN13: 9780306473609
• ISBN10: 0306473607
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-11-01
• Publisher: Kluwer Academic Pub

Summary

Mosquitoes and their Control presents a multitude of information on bionomics, systematics, ecology and control of both pestiferous (nuisance) and disease vectors in an easily readable style providing practical guidance and important information to both professional and layman alike. Ninety-two species and subspecies belonging to 8 genera and 18 subgenera are described in the fully illustrated identification keys to adult females and males and fourth-instar larvae. The illustrated keys are followed by a detailed description of the morphology, biology and distribution of each species including over 700 detailed drawings.

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(4)
I. GENERAL ASPECTS
1. Systematics	5	(4)
2. Biology of Mosquitoes	9	(20)
2.1. Oviposition	9	(4)
2.2. Embryonic development	13	(1)
2.3. Hatching	14	(4)
2.4. Larvae	18	(3)
2.5. Pupae	21	(1)
2.6. Adults	21	(5)
2.6.1. Emergence	21	(1)
2.6.2. Mating	22	(1)
2.6.3. Dispersal and host-seeking behaviour	23	(2)
2.6.4. Feeding	25	(1)
2.7. Hibernation	26	(3)
2.7.1. Egg stage	27	(1)
2.7.2. Larval stage	27	(1)
2.7.3. Adult stage	27	(2)
3. Medical Importance of Mosquitoes	29	(12)
3.1. Malaria	29	(5)
3.2. Virosis	34	(4)
3.2.1. Togaviridae (Alphavirus)	36	(1)
(a) The Sindbis virus complex	36	(1)
(b) Viruses of the Semliki forest complex	36	(1)
3.2.2. Flaviviridae (Flavivirus)	36	(1)
3.2.3. Bunyaviridae (Bunyavirus)	37	(1)
3.3. Filariasis	38	(1)
3.4. Conclusions	39	(2)
4. Mosquito Research	41	(16)
4.1. Sampling of mosquito eggs	41	(3)
4.1.1. Anopheles eggs	41	(1)
4.1.2. Egg rafts	41	(1)
4.1.3. Aedes/Ochlerotatus eggs	42	(1)
4.1.4. Eggs in artificial ovipositor sites	43	(1)
4.2. Sampling of mosquito larvae	44	(1)
4.3. Sampling of adult mosquitoes	45	(3)
4.3.1. Bait catches	45	(1)
4.3.2. Carbon dioxide/light trap	46	(2)
4.3.3. The mosquito magnetTM	48	(1)
4.4 Preserving mosquitoes	48	(3)
4.4.1. Larvae	48	(1)
4.4.2. Pupae	49	(1)
4.4.3. Adults	49	(2)
4.5. Rearing mosquitoes	51	(1)
4.6. Methods for measuring the physiological stage	52	(1)
4.7. Morphological studies	53	(1)
4.8. Cytodiagnostic methods for the identification of sibling species	53	(1)
4.9. Biochemical and molecular methods in studies on systematics	54	(1)
4.10. Ecological and behavioural studies	55	(2)
5. Morphology of Mosquitoes	57	(30)
5.1. Adults	57	(15)
5.1.1. Head	59	(2)
5.1.2. Thorax	61	(7)
5.1.3. Abdomen	68	(4)
5.2. Larvae	72	(9)
5.2.1. Head	74	(2)
5.2.2. Thorax	76	(1)
5.2.3. Abdomen	76	(5)
5.3. Pupae	81	(6)
II. THE IDENTIFICATION KEYS
6. Key to Female Mosquitoes	87	(22)
Genera	87	(1)
6.1. Genus Anopheles	88	(4)
6.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus	92	(11)
6.3. Genus Culex	103	(2)
6.4. Genus Culiseta	105	(3)
6.5. Genus Coquillettidia	108	(1)
7. Key to Male Mosquitoes	109	(24)
Genera	109	(2)
7.1. Genus Anopheles	111	(3)
7.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus	114	(11)
7.3. Genus Culex	125	(4)
7.4. Genus Culiseta	129	(2)
7.5. Genus Coquillettidia	131	(2)
8. Key to Mosquito Fourth-Instar Larvae	133	(30)
Genera	133	(2)
8.1. Genus Anopheles	135	(4)
8.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus	139	(13)
8.3. Genus Culex	152	(5)
8.4. Genus Culiseta	157	(3)
8.5. Genus Coquillettidia	160	(3)
III. MORPHOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN SPECIES 9. Subfamily Anophelinae	163	(182)
9.1. Genus Anopheles Meigen	164	(29)
9.1.1. Subgenus Anopheles Meigen	165	(19)
Anopheles (Anopheles) algeriensis Theobald 1903	165	(2)
Anopheles Claviger Complex	167	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) claviger s.s. (Meigen) 1804	167	(2)
Anopheles (Anopheles) petragnani Del Vecchio 1939	169	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) hyrcanus (Pallas) 1771	170	(2)
Anopheles Maculipennis Complex	172	(3)
Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus Van Thiel 1927	175	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) beklemishevi Stegnii and Kabanova 1976	176	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) labranchiae Falleroni 1926	176	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis S.S. Meigen 1818	177	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) melanoon Hackett 1934	177	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae Falleroni 1926	178	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi Favre 1903	178	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) subalpines Hackett and Lewis 1935	179	(1)
Anopheles (Anopheles) marten Senevet and Prunnelle 1927	180	(2)
Anopheles (Anopheles) plumbeus Stephens 1828	182	(2)
9.1.2. Subgenus Cellia Theobald	184	(9)
Anopheles (Cellia) cinereus Theobald 1901	184	(1)
Anopheles (Cellia) cinereus hispaniola (Theobald)1903	185	(1)
Anopheles (Cellia) multicolor Cambouliu 1902	186	(2)
Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii (Theobald)1907	188	(2)
Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus Grassi 1899	190	(3)
10. Subfamily Culicinae	193	(152)
10.1. Genus Aedes Meigen	193	(21)
10.1.1. Subgenus Aedes Meigen	194	(7)
Aedes (Aedes) cinereus Meigen 1818	195	(3)
Aedes (Aedes) geminas Peus 1970	198	(1)
Aedes (Aedes) rossicus Dolbeskin, Gorickaja and Mitrofanova 1930	199	(2)
10.1.2. Subgenus Aedimorphus Theobald	201	(3)
Aedes (Aedimorphus) vexans (Meigen)1830	201	(3)
10.1.3. Subgenus Fredwardsius Reinert	204	(2)
Aedes (Fredwardsius) vittatus (Bigot)1861	204	(2)
10.1.4. Subgenus Stegomyia Theobald	206	(8)
Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus) 1762	207	(3)
Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse)1895	210	(2)
Aedes (Stegomyia) tretinus Edwards 1921	212	(2)
10.2. Genus Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga	214	(69)
10.2.1. Subgenus Finlava Theobald	214	(3)
Ochlerotatus (Finlava) echinus Edwards 1920	214	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Finlava) geniculates (Olivier) 1791	216	(1)
10.2.2. Subgenus Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga	217	(57)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) annulipes (Meigen)1830	219	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) behningi (Martini)1926	221	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) berlandi (Seguy) 1921	223	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cantans (Meigen) 1818	225	(2)
Ochlerotatus Caspius Complex	227	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) caspius (Pallas)1771	227	(3)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cataphylla (Dyar)1916	230	(1)
Ochlerotatus Communis Complex	231	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) communis (De Geer) 1776	232	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cyprius (Ludlow) 1920	233	(2)
Ochlerotatus Detritus Complex	235	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) detritus (Halfday) 1833	235	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) diantaeus (Howard, Dyar and Knab) 1913	237	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) dorsalis (Meigen)1830	239	(2)
Ochlerotatus Excrucians Complex	241	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) enedes (Howard, Dyar and Knab)1913	241	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) excrucians (Walker)1856	243	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) surcoufi (Theobald)1912	244	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) flavescens (Müller)1764	245	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) hexodontus (Dyar)1916	247	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) hungaricus (Mihalyi)1955	249	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) impiger (Walker)1848	250	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) intruders (Dyar) 1919	252	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) leucomelas (Meigen)1804	253	(2)
Ochlerotatus Mariae Complex	255	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) mariae (Sergent and Sergent) 1903	255	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) zammitii (Theobald)1903	257	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) mercurator (Dyar) 1920	257	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) nigrinus (Eckstein) 1918	259	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) nigripes (Zetterstedt)1838	260	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pionips (Dyar)1919	262	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pulcritarsis (Rondani)1872	264	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pullatus (Coquillett) 1904	265	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) punctodes (Dyar)1922	267	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) punctor (Kirby)1837	268	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) riparius (Dyar and Knab) 1907	270	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) sticticus (Meigen) 1838	272	(2)
10.2.3. Subgenus Rusticoidus Shevchenko and Prudkina	274	(9)
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) lepidonotus (Edwards) 1920	274	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) üuasirusticus (Torres Canamares)1951	276	(1)
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) refiki (Medschid)1928	277	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) rusticus (Rossi) 1790	279	(2)
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) subdiversus (Martini) 1926	281	(2)
10.3. Genus Culex Linnaeus	283	(27)
10.3.1. Subgenus Barraudius Edwards	284	(4)
Culex (Barraudius) modestus Ficalbi 1889	284	(2)
Culex (Barraudius) pusillus Macquart 1850	286	(2)
10.3.2. Subgenus Culex Linnaeus	288	(14)
Culex (Culex) brumpti Galliard 1931	289	(1)
Culex (Culex) laticinctus Edwards 1913	290	(2)
Culex (Culex) mimeticus Noe 1899	292	(2)
Culex (Culex) perexiguus Theobald 1903	294	(1)
Culex Pipiens Complex	295	(1)
Culex (Culex) pipiens pipiens Linnaeus 1758	296	(2)
Culex pipiens pipiens biotype molestus Forskal 1775	298	(1)
Culex (Culex) torrentium Martini 1925	299	(1)
Culex (Culex) theileri Theobald 1903	300	(2)
10.3.3. Subgenus Maillotia Theobald	302	(3)
Culex (Maillotia) hortensis Ficalbi 1889	303	(2)
10.3.4. Subgenus Neoculex Dyar	305	(5)
Culex (Neoculex) impudicus Ficalbi 1890	305	(2)
Culex (Neoculex) martinii Medschid 1930	307	(1)
Culex (Neoculex) territans Walker 1856	308	(2)
10.4. Genus Culiseta Felt	310	(22)
10.4.1. Subgenus Allotheobaldia Broelemann	311	(2)
Culiseta (Allotheobaldia) longiareolata (Macquart)1838	311	(2)
10.4.2. Subgenus Culicella Felt	313	(8)
Culiseta (Culicella) fumipennis (Stephens)1825	313	(2)
Culiseta (Culicella) litorea (Shute)1928	315	(2)
Culiseta (Culicella) morshans (Theobald)1901	317	(2)
Culiseta (Culicella) ochroptera (Peus)1935	319	(2)
10.4.3. Subgenus Culiseta Felt	321	(11)
Culiseta (Culiseta) alaskaensis (Ludlow)1906	322	(2)
Culiseta (Culiseta) annidata (Schrank) 1776	324	(2)
Culiseta (Culiseta) bergrothi (Edwards) 1921	326	(2)
Culiseta (Culiseta) glaphyroptera (Schiner) 1864	328	(2)
Culiseta (Culiseta) subochrea (Edwards)1921	330	(2)
10.5. Genus Coquillettidia Dyar	332	(4)
10.5.1. Subgenus Coquillettidia Dyar	333	(5)
Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) buxtoni (Edwards)1923	333	(1)
Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) richiardii (Ficalbi) 1889	333	(3)
10.6. Genus Orthopodomyia Theobald	336	(2)
Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis (Rondani)1872	336	(2)
10.7. Genus Uranotaenia Lynch Arribalzaga	338	(7)
10.7.1. Subgenus Pseudoficalbia Theobald	339	(7)
Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) unguiculate Edwards 1913	339	(6)
IV. CONTROL OF MOSQUITOES
11. Biological Control	345	(32)
11.1. Introduction	345	(1)
11.2. Predators	346	(13)
11.2.1. Vertebrate predators	346	(7)
11.2.1.1. Fish (Osteichthyes)	346	(4)
11.2.1.2. Amphibians (Amphibie)	350	(1)
11.2.1.3. Birds (Avec)	350	(1)
11.2.1.4. Bats (Mammalia)	351	(2)
11.2.2. Invertebrate predators	353	(6)
11.2.2.1. Hydras (Coelenterata)	353	(1)
11.2.2.2. Flatworms (Turbellaria)	354	(1)
11.2.2.3. Freshwater snails (Gastropoda)	354	(1)
11.2.2.4. Leeches (Hirudinea)	354	(1)
11.2.2.5. Spiders and mites (Arachnida)	355	(1)
11.2.2.6. Crustaceans (Crustacea)	355	(1)
11.2.2.7. Insects (Insecta)	355	(4)
11.3. Parasites	359	(1)
11.3.1. Nematodes	359	(1)
11.4. Pathogens	360	(17)
11.4.1. Fungi	360	(2)
11.4.2. Protozoa	362	(1)
11.4.3. Bacteria	363	(11)
11.4.3.1. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis	364	(1)
11.4.3.2. Bacillus sphaericus	365	(9)
11.4.4. Viruses	374	(3)
12. Chemical Control	377	(30)
12.1. History	377	(2)
12.2. Insecticides	379	(7)
12.2.1. Classification of insecticides	380	(1)
12.2.2. Insecticide formulations	380	(4)
12.2.3. Insecticide application techniques	384	(2)
12.3. Different chemical groups of insecticides	386	(17)
12.3.1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons	386	(1)
12.3.2. Organophosphates	387	(6)
12.3.3. Carbamates	393	(1)
12.3.4. Pyrethroids	394	(4)
12.3.5. Insect growth regulators	398	(4)
12.3.6. Novel insecticide classes	402	(1)
12.4. Management and monitoring of insecticide resistance	403	(4)
12.4.1. Resistance mechanisms	403	(1)
12.4.2. Resistance surveillance	404	(1)
12.4.3. Resistance management	404	(3)
13. Physical Control	407	(4)
13.1. Sanitation	407	(1)
13.2. Water management	408	(1)
13.3. Modification of the water-air interface	408	(2)
13.3.1. Oíl	408	(1)
13.3.2. Surface films	408	(2)
13.3.2.1. Liparol	409	(1)
13.3.2.2. Monomolecular surface films (MSF)	409	(1)
13.3.3. Polystyrene beads	410	(1)
13.4. Reduction of human-mosquito contact	410	(1)
14. Personal Protection	411	(6)
14.1. Impregnated bed nets	411	(1)
14.2. Repellents against mosquitoes	412	(5)
14.2.1. Repellents on skin or clothing	412	(2)
14.2.2. Mosquito coils	414	(1)
14.2.3. Vapourising mats	414	(1)
14.2.4. Liquid vapouriser	415	(2)
15. Integrated Pest Management	417	(8)
15.1. Mosquito management research	417	(1)
15.2. Socio-economic aspects of mosquito control	418	(1)
15.3. Action thresholds as a component of integrated mosquito management	419	(1)
15.4. Information dissemination	420	(1)
15.5. IPM techniques	421	(1)
15.6. Insecticide registration and usage	421	(4)
16. Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures into Routine Treatments	425	(28)
16.1. Prerequisites for the successful implementation of the programme	427	(5)
16.1.1. Entomological studies	427	(1)
16.1.2. Mapping of the breeding sites	428	(1)
16.1.3. Selection of appropriate tools	429	(1)
16.1.4. Effective dosage assessment	429	(1)
16.1.5. Design of the control strategy	430	(1)
16.1.6. Training of field staff	431	(1)
16.1.7. Governmental application requirements	431	(1)
16.1.8. Public information systems	431	(1)
16.1.9. Community participation	431	(1)
16.2. Routine treatments	432	(21)
16.2.1. Mosquito control in Croatia	432	(1)
16.2.2. Mosquito control in Czech and Slovak Republics	433	(1)
16.2.3. Mosquito control in France	434	(1)
16.2.4. Mosquito control in Germany	434	(4)
16.2.5. Mosquito control in Greece	438	(1)
16.2.6. Mosquito control in Hungary	439	(1)
16.2.7. Mosquito control in Italy	440	(2)
16.2.8. Mosquito control in Poland	442	(1)
16.2.9. Mosquito control in Spain	443	(2)
16.2.10. Mosquito control in Sweden	445	(1)
16.2.11. Mosquito control in Switzerland	446	(3)
16.2.12. Mosquito control in Yugoslavia	449	(4)
References	453	(34)
Subject Index	487	(6)
Taxonomic Index	493