Nanosystem Characterization Tools in the Life Sciences

by Kumar, Challa S. S. R.

• ISBN13: 9783527313839
• ISBN10: 3527313834
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-02-10
• Publisher: Wiley-VCH

Summary

This Volume. Volume 3 reviews spectroscopic, scanning and X-ray methodologies for the gleaning of information with nano-scale resolution as well as special characterization techniques and the requirements of the biomedical context of the measurements. Book jacket.

Author Biography

<b>Challa Kumar</b> is currently the Group Leader of Nanofabrication at the Center for Advanced Microstructures and Devices (CAMD), Baton Rouge, USA. His research interests are in developing novel synthetic methods for functional nanomaterials and innovative therapeutic, diagnostic and sensory tools based on nanotechnology. He has eight years of industrial R&amp;D experience working for Imperial Chemical Industries and United Breweries prior to joining CAMD. He is the founding Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology, an international peer reviewed journal published by American Scientific Publishers, and the series editor for the ten-volume book series Nanotechnologies for the Life Sciences (NtLS) published by Wiley-VCH. He worked at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry in Munich, Germany, as a post doctoral fellow and at the Max Planck Institute for Carbon Research in Munich, Germany, as an invited scientist. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in synthetic organic chemistry from Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Prashanti Nilayam, India.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
List of Contributors	xvi
1 Fluorescence Imaging in Biology using Nanoprobes	1	(37)
Daniele Gerion
1.1 Introduction and Outlook	1	(2)
1.1.1 A New Era in Cell Biology	1	(1)
1.1.2 Nanotechnology and its Perspectives for Fluorescence Imaging in Cell Biology	2	(1)
1.2 Fundamentals of Fluorescence	3	(14)
1.2.1 Basic Principles	3	(3)
1.2.2 A Few Types of Fluorescent Probes	6	(1)
1.2.2.1 Small Luminescent Units and Autofluorescence of Living Organisms	6	(1)
1.2.2.2 A few Organic Dyes and their Limitation in Live Cell Labeling	7	(1)
1.2.2.3 Green Fluorescent Protein and its Cousin Mutants	8	(1)
1.2.2.4 Quantum Dots	9	(1)
1.2.2.5 Toxicity Issues of Nanomaterials	13	(1)
1.2.3 Sources and Detectors	14	(1)
1.2.3.1 Light Sources	14	(1)
1.2.3.2 Detectors	15	(2)
1.3 Microscope Configurations	17	(4)
1.3.1 Wide-field Methods: Epi-, and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)	17	(1)
1.3.1.1 Epifluorescence Illumination	17	(1)
1.3.1.2 Total internal Reflection (TIR) Illumination	18	(1)
1.3.2 Scanning Methods for Microscopy	19	(1)
1.3.2.1 Laser-scanning or Stage-scanning Confocal Microscopy	19	(1)
1.3.2.2 Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)	20	(1)
1.4 Strategies for Image Acquisition	21	(5)
1.4.1 Intensity Imaging	21	(2)
1.4.2 Spectral Imaging	23	(1)
1.4.3 Lifetime and Time-gated Imaging	24	(2)
1.4.4 Other Imaging Modalities: Polarization and FRET Imaging	26	(1)
1.5 Qdots in Biology. A Few Selected Examples	26	(5)
1.5.1 Ultra-high Colocalization of Qdots for Genetic Mapping	27	(1)
1.5.2 Dynamics of Biomolecules in a Cellular Environment	28	(1)
1.5.2.1 Trafficking of Glycine Receptors in Neural Membranes of Live Cells	29	(1)
1.5.2.2 Dynamics of Labeled Nuclear Localization Sequences Inside Living Cells	30	(1)
1.5.3 In Vivo and Non-invasive Detection Using Qdot Reporters	31	(1)
1.6 Outlook: Is there a Role for Nanoscience in Cellular Biology and in Medicine?	31	(1)
Acknowledgments	32	(1)
References	33	(5)
2 Characterization of Nanoscale Systems in Biology using Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques	38	(71)
Anthony W. Coleman, Adina N. Lazar, Cecile F. Rousseau, Sebastien Cecillon, and Patrick Shahgaldian
2.1 Introduction	38	(1)
2.2 The Scanning Probe Microscopy Experiment	39	(1)
2.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Imaging	40	(1)
2.4 Atomic Force Microscopy	41	(15)
2.4.1 Generalities	41	(3)
2.4.2 Tips and Cantilevers	44	(2)
2.4.3 Contact Mode AFM	46	(1)
2.4.4 Dynamic Modes	47	(1)
2.4.4.1 Generalities	47	(1)
2.4.4.2 Non-contact Mode	48	(1)
2.4.4.3 Intermittent Contact Mode	49	(1)
2.4.4.4 Force Modulation Mode	49	(1)
2.4.5 Friction Force Mode or Lateral Force Mode	50	(1)
2.4.6 Force–Distance Analysis	50	(2)
2.4.7 Chemical Force Imaging	52	(2)
2.4.8 Dip-pen Lithography	54	(1)
2.4.9 Cantilever Array Sensors	54	(2)
2.5 Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy	56	(1)
2.6 Artifacts	57	(3)
2.6.1 Artifacts Related to Tip Size and Geometry	57	(2)
2.6.2 Artifacts from Damaged Tips	59	(1)
2.6.3 Artifacts from Tip–Sample Interactions	59	(1)
2.6.4 Sample Artifacts	59	(1)
2.7 Using the Tools	60	(33)
2.7.1 DNA	60	(1)
2.7.1.1 Topographic Imaging of DNA	60	(1)
2.7.1.2 Imaging DNA Translocation	62	(1)
2.7.1.3 DNA Interactions and Stretching	62	(5)
2.7.2 Proteins	67	(1)
2.7.2.1 Topographic Imaging of Proteins	67	(1)
2.7.2.2 Dip-pen Nanolithography Patterning of Proteins	69	(1)
2.7.2.3 Protein–Protein and Protein–Ligand Interactions	69	(3)
2.7.3 Polysaccharides	72	(1)
2.7.3.1 Proteoglycan Topographic Imaging	72	(2)
2.7.4 Lipid Systems	74	(1)
2.7.4.1 Liposomes	74	(1)
2.7.4.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)	78	(1)
2.7.4.3 Supported Lipid Bilayers and Monolayers	81	(4)
2.7.5 SNOM Imaging	85	(2)
2.7.6 Viruses	87	(2)
2.7.7 Cells	89	(1)
2.7.7.1 Topographic Imaging	89	(1)
2.7.7.2 Interactions and Mechanical Properties	89	(1)
2.7.7.3 NSOM Imaging	91	(2)
2.7.8 Cantilever Arrays as Biosensors	93	(1)
2.8 Conclusion	93	(1)
Acknowledgments	94	(1)
References	94	(6)
Appendix 1 Books on Scanning Probe Microsopies Reviews on Scanning Probe Microsopies in Biology	100	(2)
Appendix 2 Reviews on Scanning Probe Microsopies in Biology	102	(7)
3 Quartz Crystal Microbalance Characterization of Nanostructure Assemblies in Biosensing	109	(36)
Aren E. Gerdon, David W. Wright, and David E. Cliffel
3.1 Introduction	109	(9)
3.1.1 Principles of QCM	109	(3)
3.1.2 QCM Wave Penetration Depth	112	(1)
3.1.3 QCM Sensor Specificity	113	(1)
3.1.4 Calculation of Equilibrium and Kinetic Constants	114	(2)
3.1.5 QCM Application to Life Sciences	116	(2)
3.2 Interface Between Biology and Nanomaterials	118	(6)
3.2.1 Antibodies	120	(1)
3.2.2 Nanoparticles	121	(3)
3.3 QCM Nanoparticle-based Chemical Sensors	124	(1)
3.4 QCM Nanoparticle-based Biosensors	125	(1)
3.5 QCM Nanoparticle-based Immunosensors	125	(11)
3.5.1 Traditional Immunoassays	126	(1)
3.5.2 Immunoassays using Nanotechnology	127	(1)
3.5.3 QCM Nanoparticle-based Immunosensors	128	(1)
3.5.3.1 Antigen Mimic Design	129	(1)
3.5.3.2 Glutathione-protected Nanocluster	130	(1)
3.5.3.3 Hemagglutanin Mimic Nanocluster	131	(1)
3.5.3.4 Protective Antigen of B. anthracis Mimic Nanocluster	133	(3)
3.6 Conclusions and Future Directions	136	(1)
Acknowledgments	137	(1)
Symbols	137	(1)
References	138	(7)
4 NMR Characterization Techniques – Application to Nanoscaled Pharmaceutical Carriers	145	(30)
Christian Mayer
4.1 Introduction	145	(1)
4.2 Structural Analysis of Nanoparticles	146	(8)
4.3 Phase Transitions of the Particle Matrix	154	(2)
4.4 Adsorption to the Particle Surface	156	(5)
4.5 Molecular Exchange through Nanocapsule Membranes	161	(5)
4.6 Particle Degradation and Release	166	(4)
4.7 Summary and Outlook	170	(1)
References	171	(4)
5 Characterization of Nano Features in Biopolymers using Small-angle X-ray Scattering, Electron Microscopy and Modeling	175	(33)
Angelika Krebs and Bettina Böttcher
5.1 Introduction	175	(1)
5.2 Small-angle X-ray Scattering	176	(9)
5.2.1 Scattering Technique	176	(1)
5.2.1.1 Scattering Phenomenon	176	(1)
5.2.1.2 Scattering Curve and Pair Distance Distribution Function	178	(1)
5.2.1.3 Determination of Scattering Parameters	179	(1)
5.2.1.4 Experimental Setup	180	(1)
5.2.2 Interpretation of Data	181	(1)
5.2.2.1 Direct Methods	181	(1)
5.2.2.2 Indirect Methods	182	(3)
5.3 Electron Microscopy	185	(14)
5.3.1 Image Formation	186	(1)
5.3.1.1 Interference of Electrons with Matter	186	(1)
5.3.1.2 Contrast Transfer Function	187	(1)
5.3.2 Sample Preparation	188	(1)
5.3.2.1 Vitrification of Biological Specimens	188	(3)
5.3.3 Two-dimensional Merging of Electron Microscopic Data	191	(1)
5.3.3.1 Cross Correlation Function	192	(1)
5.3.3.2 Identification of the Different Views	193	(2)
5.3.4 Merging of EM-data in Three Dimensions	195	(1)
5.3.4.1 Sinogram Correlation	195	(1)
5.3.4.2 Reconstruction of the Three-dimensional Model	196	(3)
5.4 Merging of Methods	199	(4)
5.4.1 Comparison of EM and SAXS Data	199	(2)
5.4.2 SAXS Modeling Approaches using EM Information	201	(2)
References	203	(5)
6 In Situ Characterization of Drug Nanoparticles by FTIR Spectroscopy	208	(33)
Michael Türk and Ruth Signorell
6.1 Introduction	208	(1)
6.2 Particle Generation Methods	209	(3)
6.2.1 Rapid Expansion of Supercritical Solutions (RESS) S S)	209	(2)
6.2.2 Electro-Spraying	211	(1)
6.3 Particle Characterization Methods	212	(7)
6.3.1 In Situ Characterization with FTIR Spectroscopy	212	(1)
6.3.1.1 Experimental Setup	212	(1)
6.3.1.2 Characterization of the RESS Process	214	(3)
6.3.2 In Situ Characterization with 3-WEM	217	(1)
6.3.3 Characterization with SMPS and SEM	218	(1)
6.4 Determination of Refractive Index Data in the Mid-infrared Region	219	(3)
6.5 Examples	222	(14)
6.5.1 Phenanthrene Particles: Size, Shape, Optical Data	222	(4)
6.5.2 Sugar Nanoparticles	226	(3)
6.5.3 Drug Nanoparticles	229	(7)
6.6 Summary and Conclusion	236	(1)
Acknowledgment	236	(1)
References	237	(4)
7 Characterization of Nanoscaled Drug Delivery Systems by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)	241	(18)
Karsten Mäder
7.1 Introduction	241	(1)
7.2 ESR Basics and Requirements	242	(4)
7.3 Information from ESR Spectroscopy and Imaging	246	(9)
7.3.1 Nitroxide Concentration	246	(1)
7.3.2 Micropolarity and Microviscosity	247	(6)
7.3.3 Monitoring of Microacidity	253	(1)
7.3.4 ESR Imaging	254	(1)
7.4 In Vivo ESR	255	(1)
7.5 Summary and Outlook	255	(1)
Acknowledgment	256	(1)
References	256	(3)
8 X-ray Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy in Nanoscience and Lifesciences	259	(33)
Jinghua Guo
8.1 Introduction	259	(1)
8.2 Soft X-ray Spectroscopy	260	(7)
8.2.1 Soft X-ray Absorption Edges	261	(1)
8.2.2 Soft X-ray Emission Spectroscopy	261	(2)
8.2.3 Soft X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy	263	(1)
8.2.4 Resonant Soft X-ray Emission Spectroscopy	264	(1)
8.2.5 Experimental Details	265	(2)
8.3 Chemical Sensitivity of Soft X-ray Spectroscopy	267	(5)
8.3.1 Electronic Structure and Geometrical Structure	268	(2)
8.3.2 Hydrogen Bonding Effect	270	(1)
8.3.3 Charge and Spin States of Transition Metals	271	(1)
8.4 Electronic Structure and Nanostructure	272	(5)
8.4.1 Wide Bandgap Nanostructured Semiconductors	273	(2)
8.4.2 Cu Nanoclusters	275	(1)
8.4.3 ZnO Nanocrystals	276	(1)
8.5 Electronic Structure and Molecular Structure	277	(8)
8.5.1 Hydrogen Bonding in Liquid Water	277	(1)
8.5.2 Molecular Structure in Liquid Alcohol and Water Mixture	278	(2)
8.5.3 Electronic Structure and Ion Solvations	280	(2)
8.5.4 Drugs in Water Solution	282	(1)
8.5.5 Electronic Structure of Bases in DNA Duplexes	282	(3)
Acknowledgments	285	(1)
References	286	(6)
9 Some New Advances and Challenges in Biological and Biomedical Materials Characterization	292	(27)
Filip Braet, Lilian Soon, Thomas F. Kelly, David J. Larson, and Simon P. Ringer
9.1 Introduction	292	(1)
9.2 Modern Atom Probe Tomography: Principles, Applications in Biomaterials and Potential Applications for Biology	293	(14)
9.2.1 The Need for an Ideal Microscope	293	(1)
9.2.1.1 Field Ion Microscopy and the Modern Atom Probe Instrument	293	(1)
9.2.1.2 Applications in Biomaterials	298	(1)
9.2.1.3 Applications and Challenges for Biological Science	301	(6)
9.3 Atomic Force Microscopy	307	(5)
9.3.1 Introduction	307	(1)
9.3.2 Instrumentation	308	(1)
9.3.2.1 Live Cell Imaging	309	(3)
9.3.3 Summary	312	(1)
9.4 Cryo-electron Microscopy	312	(2)
9.4.1 Introduction	312	(1)
9.4.2 Instrumentation	313	(1)
9.4.2.1 Cryo-electron Microscopy Imaging	313	(1)
9.4.3 Summary	314	(1)
9.5 Conclusions	314	(1)
Acknowledgments	315	(1)
References	315	(4)
10 Dynamic Light Scattering Microscopy	319	(35)
Rhonda Dzakpasu and Daniel Axelrod
10.1 Introduction	319	(1)
10.2 Theory	320	(15)
10.2.1 Single Scattering Center	321	(3)
10.2.2 Multiple Scattering Centers	324	(1)
10.2.3 Temporal Autocorrelation of Intensity	324	(1)
10.2.4 Phase Fluctuation Factors	325	(4)
10.2.5 Number Fluctuation Factors	329	(2)
10.2.6 Characteristic Times and Distances	331	(1)
10.2.7 Spatial Autocorrelation of Intensity	331	(3)
10.2.8 Variance of Intensity Fluctuations: Mobile Fraction	334	(1)
10.3 Experimental Design	335	(4)
10.3.1 Optical Setup	335	(1)
10.3.2 Data Acquisition	335	(2)
10.3.3 Sample Preparation: Polystyrene Beads	337	(1)
10.3.4 Sample Preparation: Living Macrophages	338	(1)
10.3.5 Buffer Changes during Data Acquisition	338	(1)
10.4 Data Analysis	339	(2)
10.4.1 Temporal Intensity Autocorrelation Function	339	(1)
10.4.2 Spatial Intensity Autocorrelation Function	339	(1)
10.4.3 Mobile Fraction	340	(1)
10.5 Experimental Results	341	(7)
10.5.1 Polystyrene Beads: Temporal Phase Autocorrelation	341	(1)
10.5.2 Variance of Intensity Fluctuations on Beads: Phase Fluctuations	342	(1)
10.5.3 Polystyrene Beads: Number Fluctuations	343	(2)
10.5.4 Polystyrene Beads: Spatial Autocorrelation	345	(1)
10.5.5 Polystyrene Beads: Mobile Fractions	346	(1)
10.5.6 Living Macrophage Cells: Temporal Autocorrelation	347	(1)
10.5.7 Living Macrophage Cells: Mobile Fraction	348	(1)
10.6 Discussion	348	(4)
10.6.1 Polystyrene Beads	348	(2)
10.6.2 Macrophages	350	(1)
10.6.3 Improvements for DLSM	351	(1)
Acknowledgments	352	(1)
References	352	(2)
11 X-ray Scattering Techniques for Characterization of Nanosystems in Lifesciences	354	(25)
Cheng K. Saw
11.1 Introduction	354	(2)
11.2 Brief Historical Background and Unique Properties	356	(1)
11.3 Scattering of X-rays	357	(2)
11.4 Crystallography	359	(1)
11.5 Scattering from a Powder Sample	360	(2)
11.6 Scattering by Atomic Aggregates	362	(2)
11.7 Crystallite Size and Paracrystallinity	364	(1)
11.8 Production of X-rays	365	(2)
11.9 Absorption of X-rays	367	(1)
11.10 Instrumentation: WAXS	367	(3)
11.11 Small Angle X-ray Scattering	370	(3)
11.11.1 Dilute Systems	371	(2)
11.11.2 Highly Correlating Systems	373	(1)
11.12 SAXS Instrumentation	373	(2)
11.13 Synchrotron Radiation	375	(1)
11.14 Concluding Remarks	376	(1)
Acknowledgment	377	(1)
References	377	(2)
Index	379