Preface | p. xv |
Natural Hazards and Disasters: Catastrophic Events in Nature | p. 1 |
Living in Harm's Way | p. 1 |
Avoiding Natural Disasters | p. 3 |
Land Use Planning | p. 3 |
Pointing the Blame Finger | p. 3 |
Predicting Catastrophe | p. 4 |
Randomness in Natural Events | p. 5 |
Hazard and Risk | p. 6 |
Population and Social Pressures | p. 8 |
The Role of Public Education | p. 9 |
Key Points | p. 10 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 11 |
Questions for Review | p. 11 |
Further Reading | p. 11 |
Plate Tectonics and Physical Hazards | p. 12 |
Development of the Theory | p. 12 |
Earth Structure | p. 16 |
Where Plates Pull Apart (Spreading Zones or Divergent Boundaries) | p. 23 |
Where Plates Come Together (Convergent Boundaries) | p. 24 |
Where Plates Slide Past Each Other (Transform Faults) | p. 29 |
Hotspot Volcanoes | p. 30 |
The Scientific Method | p. 33 |
Summary | p. 33 |
Key Points | p. 33 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 34 |
Questions for Review | p. 34 |
Further Reading | p. 34 |
Earthquakes and Their Damages: Shaking Ground, Collapsing Buildings | p. 35 |
Earthquakes Up Close: Loma Prieta, 1989 | p. 36 |
Earthquakes and Earthquake Waves | p. 38 |
Frequency and Wavelength | p. 38 |
Seismographs | p. 39 |
Movement of a Pendulum | p. 39 |
Faults and Earthquakes | p. 41 |
Causes of Earthquakes | p. 42 |
Locating Earthquakes | p. 44 |
Earthquake Size and Characteristics | p. 44 |
Mercalli Intensity Scale | p. 45 |
Richter Magnitude Scale | p. 47 |
Large-Earthquake Characteristics | p. 47 |
Earthquake Frequency | p. 48 |
Ground Acceleration, Shaking Time, and Displacement | p. 48 |
Ground Motion and Failure During Earthquakes | p. 48 |
Liquefaction | p. 50 |
Case in Point: Mexico City Earthquake, 1985 | p. 51 |
Quick Clays | p. 52 |
Landslides | p. 52 |
Effect of Bedrock Structure | p. 53 |
Damage Control | p. 53 |
Case in Point: Armenian Earthquake, 1988 | p. 53 |
Case in Point: Kobe Earthquake, Japan, 1995 | p. 57 |
Earthquake Effects on Buildings | p. 59 |
Building Vibration and Oscillation | p. 60 |
Base Isolation | p. 60 |
Key Points | p. 62 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 63 |
Question for Review | p. 63 |
Further Reading | p. 63 |
Earthquake Prediction and Tectonic Environments | p. 64 |
Predicting Earthquakes | p. 64 |
Earthquake Predictions and Consequences | p. 65 |
Earthquake Precursors | p. 65 |
Case in Point: Haicheng and Tangshan Earthquakes, China, 1975 and 1976 | p. 66 |
Seismic Gaps | p. 67 |
Migrating Earthquakes | p. 68 |
Earthquake Regularity | p. 68 |
Paleoseismology | p. 69 |
Water as a Triggering Mechanism? | p. 69 |
Early Warning Systems | p. 71 |
Long-Term Forecasts and Risk Maps | p. 71 |
Psychics | p. 72 |
Surviving Earthquakes | p. 73 |
The San Andreas Fault | p. 73 |
San Francisco Bay Area Earthquakes | p. 77 |
Hayward and Rodgers Creek Faults | p. 79 |
Los Angeles Area Earthquakes | p. 81 |
Tectonic Environments of Major Earthquakes | p. 85 |
Transform Faults | p. 85 |
Subduction Zones | p. 87 |
Blind Thrust Faults over an Active Subduction Zone | p. 88 |
Continent-Continent Collision Zones | p. 88 |
Blind Thrust Faults Associated with a Continental Collision Zone | p. 90 |
Continental Spreading Zones | p. 91 |
Intraplate Earthquakes without Obvious Tectonic Context | p. 93 |
The Potential for Still Larger Events | p. 96 |
Key Points | p. 97 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 97 |
Questions for Review | p. 98 |
Further Reading | p. 98 |
Tsunami: The Great Wave | p. 99 |
Harbor Waves | p. 99 |
Sumatra Tsunami: December 2004 | p. 99 |
Chile Tsunami: May 1960 | p. 102 |
Tsunami Generation | p. 104 |
Earthquake-Generated Tsunami | p. 104 |
Volcano-Generated Tsunami | p. 105 |
Tsunami from Fast-Moving Landslides or Rockfalls | p. 105 |
Case in Point: Anchorage, Alaska, 1964 | p. 106 |
Case in Point: Hokkaida, Japan, 1993 | p. 108 |
Case in Point: Lituya Bay, Alaska, 1958 | p. 109 |
Case in Point: Glacier Bay, Alaska | p. 110 |
Case in Point: Krakatau | p. 111 |
Tsunami from Volcano Flank Collapse | p. 111 |
Tsunami from Asteroid Impact | p. 114 |
Velocity and Height | p. 114 |
Coastal Effects and Vulnerability | p. 116 |
Tsunami from Great Earthquakes in the Pacific Northwest | p. 118 |
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation | p. 122 |
Surviving a Tsunami | p. 122 |
Tsunami Examples | p. 122 |
Seiches | p. 122 |
The Potential for Giant Tsunami | p. 124 |
Key Points | p. 125 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 126 |
Questions for Review | p. 126 |
Further Reading | p. 126 |
Volcanoes: Materials, Hazards, and Eruptive Mechanisms | p. 127 |
Volcanoes Up Close: Mount St. Helens Eruption, 1980 | p. 128 |
Mount St. Helens Eruption, May 18, 1980 | p. 130 |
Preamble to the May 18 Eruption | p. 131 |
Types of Volcanic Hazards and Products | p. 134 |
Lava Flows | p. 134 |
Oceanic Ridges | p. 136 |
Continental Flood Basalts | p. 136 |
Ash Falls | p. 137 |
Ash Flows, Glowing Avalanches, and Surges | p. 138 |
Magma Chambers and the Driving Force behind Eruptions | p. 142 |
Magma Chambers | p. 142 |
Explosive Eruptions | p. 143 |
Volcanic Mudflows | p. 143 |
Poisonous Gases | p. 145 |
Volcanic Behavior: Relationships to Viscosity, Volatiles, and Volume | p. 146 |
Key Points | p. 149 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 150 |
Questions for Review | p. 150 |
Further Reading | p. 150 |
Volcanoes: Types, Behavior, and Risks | p. 151 |
Basaltic Volcanoes | p. 151 |
Shield Volcanoes | p. 151 |
Cinder Cones | p. 155 |
Andesitic Volcanoes: Stratovolcanoes | p. 157 |
Case in Point: The High Cascades | p. 157 |
Mount St. Helens | p. 159 |
Mount Hood | p. 159 |
Mount Rainier | p. 159 |
Mount Lassen | p. 161 |
Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) | p. 162 |
Three Sisters | p. 163 |
Mount Shasta | p. 164 |
Rhyolitic Volcanoes | p. 165 |
Lava Domes | p. 165 |
Case in Point: Mount Pelee, Martinique, West Indies | p. 166 |
Giant Continental Calderas | p. 168 |
Case in Point: Yellowstone Volcano | p. 170 |
Volcanic Eruptions and Products | p. 171 |
Explosive Eruption Styles | p. 172 |
Assessment of Hazard and Risk of Volcanoes | p. 173 |
Ancient Eruptions | p. 173 |
Case in Point: Santorini, Greece | p. 174 |
Eruption Warnings: Volcanic Precursors | p. 176 |
Case in Point: Mount Pinatubo | p. 178 |
Case in Point: Vesuvius and Its Neighbors | p. 180 |
Violent Eruptions and Active Subduction Zones | p. 185 |
A Look Ahead | p. 185 |
Key Points | p. 185 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 186 |
Questions for Review | p. 186 |
Further Reading | p. 186 |
Landslides and Other Downslope Movements: Falling Mountains | p. 187 |
Factors Controlling Downslope Movement of Landslides | p. 187 |
Landslides Up Close: La Conchita, California | p. 188 |
Load | p. 189 |
Slope | p. 189 |
Slope Material: Strength and Friction | p. 190 |
Friction | p. 190 |
A Little Water | p. 191 |
Too Much Water | p. 191 |
Clays and Clay Behavior | p. 193 |
Liquefaction and Earthquakes | p. 194 |
Quick Clays | p. 194 |
Earthquakes Trigger Many Landslides | p. 195 |
Internal Surfaces | p. 196 |
Old Landslides | p. 198 |
Types of Downslope Movement | p. 198 |
Rockfalls and Rock Avalanches | p. 198 |
Debris Avalanches | p. 200 |
Case in Point: Rockfall Hazards West of Denver | p. 200 |
Case in Point: Rockville Rockfall, Southwestern Utah | p. 201 |
Case in Point: Madison Slide, Montana | p. 202 |
Case in Point: Frank Slide, Alberta | p. 203 |
Case in Point: Elam, Switzerland | p. 204 |
Case in Point: Yungay, Peru | p. 205 |
Rotational Slides and Slumps | p. 206 |
Stresses on the Shear Surface: Method of Slices | p. 207 |
Sackung | p. 208 |
Translational Slides | p. 208 |
Case in Point: The Vaiont Landslide | p. 210 |
Lateral-Spreading Slides | p. 212 |
Debris Flows | p. 212 |
Case in Point: A Tropical Climate Debris-Flow and Flood Disaster | p. 216 |
Danger Signs: Evidence for Former Debris Flows | p. 219 |
Mudflows and Earthflows | p. 220 |
Soil Creep | p. 221 |
Rates of Downslope Movements | p. 222 |
Submarine Slides | p. 222 |
Volcano Flank Collapse | p. 222 |
Failure of Landslide Dams | p. 223 |
Landslide Influences and Hazard Maps | p. 224 |
Why People Build in Landslide-Prone Areas? | p. 224 |
Key Point | p. 226 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 227 |
Questions for Review | p. 227 |
Further Reading | p. 227 |
Sinkholes, Land Subsidence, and Swelling Soils | p. 228 |
Ground Collapse and Sinkholes | p. 228 |
Formation of Cavities in Limestone | p. 228 |
Collapsing Cavities | p. 230 |
Sinkholes in Different Regions | p. 231 |
Central Florida Sinkholes | p. 231 |
Sinkhole Problems in Central and Eastern Pennsylvania | p. 232 |
Sinkholes in Kentucky | p. 233 |
Collapse over a Salt Mine in Western New York | p. 233 |
Land Subsidence | p. 233 |
Mining Groundwater and Petroleum | p. 233 |
Case in Point: San Joaquin Valley of California | p. 235 |
Drainage of Organic Soils | p. 237 |
Ground Subsidence with Drying of Clays | p. 237 |
Case in Point: Venice, Italy | p. 238 |
Swelling Soils | p. 240 |
Case in Point Denver's Swelling Soils | p. 242 |
Key Points | p. 244 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 244 |
Questions for Review | p. 244 |
Further Reading | p. 244 |
Climate and Weather Related to Hazards: Storms on the Horizon | p. 245 |
Global Warming | p. 245 |
Atmospheric Cooling | p. 248 |
Case in Point: Mount Tambora | p. 248 |
Climatic Cycles? | p. 248 |
Days | p. 249 |
Seasons | p. 249 |
Precession of the Equinoxes: -26,000 Years | p. 249 |
Change in the Tilt of Earth's Axis: -41,000 Years | p. 249 |
Change in the Elliptical Shape of Earth's Orbit: -100,000-Year Cycles | p. 249 |
Basic Elements of Weather | p. 251 |
Hydrologic Cycle and Humidity | p. 251 |
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation | p. 252 |
Atmospheric Pressure and Weather | p. 253 |
Coriolis Effect | p. 254 |
Global Air Circulation | p. 256 |
Jet Stream | p. 257 |
Weather Fronts | p. 258 |
El Nino | p. 260 |
Normal Pattern | p. 260 |
El Nino Conditions | p. 261 |
Predicting El Nino | p. 262 |
North Atlantic Oscillation | p. 262 |
Climate Controls on Flooding | p. 263 |
Importance of Duration and Intensity of Rainfall | p. 264 |
Dry Climates | p. 265 |
Strong Winds Not Associated with Storms | p. 265 |
Chinook Winds | p. 265 |
Santa Ana Winds | p. 265 |
Key Points | p. 265 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 266 |
Questions for Review | p. 266 |
Further Reading | p. 267 |
Streams and Flood Processes: Rising Waters | p. 268 |
Stream Flow and Sediment Transport Processes | p. 269 |
Stream Flow and Gradient | p. 269 |
Floods Up Close: Big Thompson Canyon, Northwest of Denver | p. 270 |
Bankfull Channel Width, Depth, and Capacity | p. 272 |
Sediment Transport and Stream Equilibrium | p. 273 |
Sediment Transport Mechanisms | p. 277 |
Stream Types | p. 277 |
Meandering Streams | p. 277 |
Braided Streams | p. 280 |
Bedrock Streams | p. 281 |
The Hydrograph | p. 282 |
Precipitation Intensity and Runoff | p. 282 |
Stream Order and Hydrograph Shape | p. 283 |
Flood Crests Move Downstream | p. 283 |
Floods on Frozen or Water-Saturated Ground | p. 284 |
Destructive Energy of Floods | p. 285 |
Stream Power | p. 285 |
Flood Frequency and Recurrence Intervals | p. 285 |
Recurrence Intervals and Discharge | p. 285 |
Case in Point: Spring Thaw from the South on a North-Flowing River | p. 286 |
Case in Point: Guadalupe River Upstream of New Braunfels, Texas | p. 288 |
Problems with Recurrence Intervals | p. 290 |
Floodplains and 100-Year Floodplains | p. 292 |
Flood Insurance | p. 293 |
Key Points | p. 294 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 295 |
Questions for Review | p. 295 |
Further Reading | p. 296 |
Floods and Human Interactions | p. 297 |
Effects of Development on Floodplains | p. 297 |
Levees | p. 297 |
The Great Mississippi River Basin Flood of 1993 | p. 299 |
Intentional Levee Breaks | p. 303 |
Levees, Safety, and Costs | p. 304 |
Avulsion | p. 305 |
Channelization | p. 305 |
Case in Point: Yellow (Huang-Ho) River of China | p. 306 |
Case in Point: New Orleans | p. 308 |
Case in Point: A Channelized Old World River | p. 310 |
Flood Control and Multipurpose Dams | p. 311 |
Floods Caused by Failure of Human-Made Dams | p. 311 |
Case in Point: Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, California | p. 312 |
Urbanization | p. 314 |
Case in Point: Failure of the Teton Dam, Idaho | p. 315 |
Flash Flood Hazards | p. 316 |
Changes Imposed on Streams | p. 317 |
Forest Fires and Range Fires | p. 317 |
Logging and Overgrazing | p. 317 |
Hydraulic Placer Mining | p. 317 |
Dams and Stream Equilibrium | p. 318 |
Bridges | p. 319 |
Mining of Stream Sand and Gravel | p. 319 |
Paleoflood Analysis | p. 320 |
Early Postflood Evidence | p. 320 |
Case in Point: Channel Deepening and Groundwater Loss from Gravel Mining | p. 321 |
Paleoflood Markers | p. 322 |
Review of Factors That Influence Floods | p. 323 |
Complexity, or "Coincident Criticality" and Floods | p. 324 |
Key Points | p. 324 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 325 |
Questions for Review | p. 325 |
Further Reading | p. 325 |
Waves, Beaches, and Coastal Erosion: Rivers of Sand | p. 326 |
Living on Dangerous Coasts | p. 326 |
Waves | p. 327 |
Beaches | p. 329 |
Wave Refraction and Longshore Drift | p. 329 |
Waves on Rocky Coasts | p. 331 |
Beach Slope: An Equilibrium Profile | p. 331 |
Rip Currents | p. 332 |
Loss of Sand from the Beach | p. 332 |
People Move to the Beach | p. 332 |
Beach Erosion and Hardening | p. 333 |
Reduction of Sand Supply | p. 333 |
Artificial Barriers to Wave Action | p. 333 |
Areas of Severe Erosion | p. 337 |
Beach Replenishment | p. 338 |
Erosion of Gently Sloping Coasts and Barrier Islands | p. 341 |
Dunes | p. 341 |
Barrier Bars at Estuaries and Inlets | p. 343 |
Erosion Along Cliff-Bound Coasts | p. 347 |
Letting Nature Take Its Course | p. 349 |
Key Points | p. 349 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 350 |
Questions for Review | p. 350 |
Further Reading | p. 350 |
Hurricanes and Nor'easters: The Big Winds | p. 351 |
Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones | p. 351 |
Hurricanes Up Close: Hurricane Hugo | p. 352 |
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale | p. 355 |
Formation of Hurricanes and Cyclones | p. 355 |
Case in Point: Hurricane Camille | p. 357 |
Case in Point: Hurricane Isabel | p. 358 |
Extratropical Cyclones, Including Nor'easters | p. 362 |
Winter Windstorms and Heavy Snow | p. 364 |
Case in Point: Superstorm, March 1993 | p. 365 |
Case in Point: Tropical Storm Allison | p. 365 |
Storm Surges | p. 368 |
Case in Point: Galveston Hurricane | p. 372 |
Waves and Wave Damages | p. 374 |
Winds and Wind Damages | p. 375 |
Rainfall and Flooding | p. 378 |
Case in Point: Hurricanes Dennis and Floyd, 1999 | p. 379 |
Deaths in Hurricanes | p. 382 |
Case in Point: Hurricane Andrew | p. 383 |
Poor Countries: Different Problems | p. 384 |
Building Restrictions | p. 385 |
Case in Point: Hurricane Mitch | p. 386 |
Case in Point: Cyclones of Bangladesh and Calcutta, India | p. 389 |
Hurricane Prediction and Warnings | p. 391 |
Categories of Hurricane Warning | p. 392 |
Hurricane Modification? | p. 394 |
A More Damaging Hurricane than Any in Historic Time? | p. 394 |
Key Points | p. 395 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 396 |
Questions for Review | p. 396 |
Further Reading | p. 396 |
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes | p. 397 |
Thunderstorms | p. 397 |
Lightning | p. 398 |
Downbursts | p. 401 |
Hail | p. 401 |
Tornadoes | p. 401 |
The Fujita Scale | p. 402 |
Tornado Development | p. 407 |
Tornado Damage and Risks | p. 407 |
Case in Point: Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak | p. 411 |
Case in Point: Superoutbreak of 1974 | p. 412 |
Key Points | p. 413 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 141 |
Questions for Review | p. 414 |
Further Reading | p. 414 |
Wildfires: Fanned Flames | p. 415 |
Wildfires Up Close: The Black Mountain Fire, Missoula, Montana | p. 416 |
Fire Process and Behavior | p. 417 |
Case in Point: Storm King Mountain, Colorado | p. 418 |
Case in Point: Southern California Firestorm, 2003 | p. 420 |
Fire Suppression and Prevention | p. 422 |
Erosion Following Wildfires | p. 422 |
Some Concerns | p. 423 |
Case in Point; Bitterroot Valley Fires, Summer 2000 | p. 424 |
Key Points | p. 426 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 426 |
Questions for Review | p. 427 |
Further Reading | p. 427 |
Impact of Asteroids and Comets | p. 428 |
Projectiles from Space: The Ultimate Catastrophe? | p. 428 |
Chondrites | p. 430 |
Achondrites | p. 430 |
Identification of Meteorites | p. 430 |
Collision Course? | p. 430 |
Evolution of an Impact Crater | p. 431 |
Some Key Points and Evidence for an Impact | p. 432 |
Case in Point: Meteor Crater, Arizona | p. 433 |
Case in Point: Popigai Crater in Northern Siberia | p. 434 |
Case in Point: The Studbury Complex, Ontario | p. 436 |
Case in Point: Ries Crater in Germany | p. 437 |
Chances of a Large Asteroid Impact on Earth | p. 437 |
Likely Consequences of Impacts with Earth | p. 437 |
Impact of a Large Asteroid | p. 437 |
Case in Point: Chicxulub Impact Crater | p. 438 |
A Modest-Sized Asteroid Impact | p. 439 |
Doomsday? | p. 439 |
What Could We Do About an Incoming Asteroid? | p. 439 |
Falling Rocks: Your Personal Chance of Being Hit by a Meteorite? | p. 440 |
Other Consequences of a Major Asteroid Impact | p. 441 |
Lunar Maria | p. 441 |
Case in Point: Tungusika, Siberia | p. 441 |
Summary | p. 441 |
Key Points | p. 442 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 442 |
Questions for Review | p. 442 |
Further Reading | p. 443 |
The Future: Where Do We Go from Here? | p. 444 |
We Are the Problem | p. 444 |
Hazard Assessment and Mitigation | p. 446 |
Societal Attitudes | p. 446 |
Education | p. 447 |
Different Ground Rules for the Poor | p. 448 |
Key Points | p. 450 |
Important Words and Concepts | p. 450 |
Questions for Review | p. 450 |
Further Reading | p. 450 |
Hurricane Katrina: A Case Study of the Costliest Disaster in U.S. History | p. 451 |
Hurricanes Up Close: Hurricane Katrina | p. 452 |
Hurricane Katrina | p. 453 |
Unfolding Events | p. 453 |
Planning and Evacuation | p. 453 |
Approach and Landfall | p. 455 |
The Wind, Storm Surge, and Flood | p. 456 |
The Pumps Fail | p. 459 |
Contamination, Disease, and Mold | p. 460 |
Relief Came Slowly | p. 462 |
Deaths from the Hurricane | p. 463 |
Financial Problems, Job Losses | p. 463 |
The Poor Have Additional Problems | p. 463 |
Impacts Farther South and East: The Hurricane Winds, Surge, and Waves | p. 464 |
Insurance | p. 467 |
Predictions, Warnings, and Preparation for the Approaching Storm | p. 468 |
Disaster Response | p. 468 |
What Went Wrong? | p. 470 |
The Future of New Orleans? | p. 471 |
Rebuilding? | p. 471 |
Not the First Time nor the Last | p. 471 |
Geological Time Scale | p. 451 |
Mineral and Rock Characteristics Related to Hazards | p. 452 |
Igneous Rocks | p. 452 |
Sedimentary Rocks | p. 452 |
Metamorphic Rocks | p. 453 |
Weak Rocks and Strong Rocks | p. 453 |
Common Rock-Forming Minerals | p. 453 |
Common Rocks | p. 457 |
Granite | p. 457 |
Gabbro | p. 457 |
Rhyolite | p. 458 |
Andesite and Dacite | p. 459 |
Basalt | p. 459 |
Shale and Mudstone | p. 460 |
Sandstone | p. 460 |
Limestone | p. 460 |
Slate | p. 460 |
Schist | p. 461 |
Gneiss | p. 461 |
Serpentinite | p. 462 |
Rocks, Landscapes, and Hazards | p. 462 |
Conversion Factors | p. 463 |
Glossary | p. 465 |
Index | p. 480 |
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