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NEXT-GENERATION ALGAE
This book brings together experts in relevant fields to describe the successful application of algae and their derivatives in agriculture, improving agricultural sustainability, harvesting and processing, food security, fishery, aquafarming, agriculture pollution, and state-of-the-art developments of algae in commercial and agriculture utilization.
This book provides up-to-date and cutting-edge information on the application of algae in producing sustainable solutions to various challenges that arise from an increase in agricultural production, as well as its utilization in the bioremediation of industrial wastewater. Moreover, the book provides detailed information about the recent advancements in smart microalgae wastewater treatment using Internet of Things (IoT) and edge computing applications. Other topics covered include the use of microalgae in various applications; the use of algae to remove arsenic; algae’s role in plastic biodegradation, heavy metal bioremediation, and toxicity removal from industrial wastewater; the application of DNA transfer techniques in algae; the use of algae as food and in the production of food, ascorbic acid, health food, supplements, and food surrogates; relevant biostimulants and biofertilizers that could be derived from cyanobacterials and their role in sustainable agriculture; and algae’s application in the effective production of biofuels and bioenergy.
Audience
This book is aimed at a diverse audience including professionals, scientists, environmentalists, industrialists, researchers, innovators, and policymakers who have an interest in bioremediation technologies for extremely polluted environments, especially in water, air, and soil.
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, PhD, is an associate professor in the Microbiology Department, Edo University Iyamho, Nigeria. He has filed several scientific patents and has published over 180 scientific journal articles, books, and conference proceedings. He has received numerous awards from international organizations.
Julius Kola Oloke, PhD, is the Vice Chancellor of Precious Cornerstone University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Naveen Dwivedi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Biotechnology at the S. D. College of Engineering and Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma, PhD, is a scientist at the Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development, Bioenergy and Bioprocessing laboratory Sikkim Centre, Sikkim, India.
Shubha Dwivedi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Biotechnology, IIMT University, Meerut, UP, India.
Daniel Hefft, PhD, is a chemical and food engineer and is the Product Research Team Lead at Campden BRI, UK. This role within the consulting technology department delivers meaningful contract R&D and process engineering solutions.
Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, PhD, is a faculty member in the Department of Biochemistry, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria. Her research interests are focused on the nutritional safety of foods and the evaluation of medicinal plants in the management and maintenance of human health.
Preface xv
1 Smart Microalgae Wastewater Treatment: IoT and Edge Computing Applications with LCA and Technoeconomic Analysis 1
Mohd. Zafar, Avnish Pareek, Taqi Ahmed Khan, Ramkumar Lakshminarayanan and Naveen Dwivedi
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Importance and Potential of Extremophilic Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment (WWT) Plant 4
1.3 Status of Microalgae-Based WWT Plants 5
1.3.1 Conditions and Requirements (Abiotic and Biotic Requirements, Nutrients Requirement) 5
1.3.2 Microalgae-Based WWT System – Photobioreactor System in Suspension and Immobilized Model 12
1.3.3 Evaluation of Treatment Performance 12
1.4 IoT and Edge Computing-Based Monitoring and Modeling of Integrated Microalgae-Based WWT Plant 21
1.4.1 Machine Learning Approaches for Data Acquisition, Monitoring and Analysis System 22
1.5 Techno-Economic Analysis of Integrated Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment (WWT) System 28
1.6 Brief Case Studies of Commercially Available Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment (WWT) Plants 34
1.7 Conclusion 35
References 36
2 The Use of Microalgae in Various Applications 49
Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Mirac Sabankay and M. Ozgur Seydibeyoglu
2.1 Introduction 49
2.1.1 Algae Classification 50
2.1.2 Cultivation of Microalgae 51
2.2 End Uses of Microalgae 53
2.2.1 Biofuel Applications 53
2.2.1.1 Biodiesel 53
2.2.1.2 Bioethanol 55
2.2.1.3 Biomethane (Syngas) 56
2.2.1.4 Biohydrogen 57
2.2.1.5 Bioplastic 59
2.3 Microalgal High-Value Compounds 60
2.3.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 60
2.3.2 Carotenoids 62
2.3.3 Phycocyanin 65
2.3.4 Sterols 66
2.3.5 Polysaccharides 67
2.3.6 Polyketides 68
2.4 Biomass 68
2.4.1 Health Food Products 68
2.4.2 Animal Feed 70
2.5 Potential Future Applications 71
2.6 Conclusion 73
References 74
3 Arsenic Bioremoval Using Algae: A Sustainable Process 91
Sougata Ghosh, Jyoti Nayak, Md Ashraful Islam and Sirikanjana Thongmee
3.1 Introduction 92
3.2 Algae-Mediated Arsenic Removal 93
3.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 104
Acknowledgment 104
References 104
4 Plastics, Food and the Environment: Algal Intervention for Improvement and Minimization of Toxic Implications 109
Naveen Dwivedi, Pragya Sharma and V.P. Sharma
4.1 Introduction 110
4.2 Constituents of Chemicals in Plastics and Waste Generation 111
4.3 Packaging of Food and Minimization Through Concept of ® 112
4.4 Current World Production Rate of Plastics 112
4.4.1 Plastics, Food and Packaging to Distribution in Public and Strategic National Boundaries 113
4.4.2 Future Projection on Plastic Production 115
4.5 Toxic Implications of Microplastics from Food Packaging or Other Items 115
4.5.1 Biodegradable Polymers 116
4.5.2 Particulate Matter from Plastics and Implications 117
4.6 Conclusion 117
References 118
5 Role of Algae in Biodegradation of Plastics 125
Piyush Gupta, Namrata Gupta, Subhakanta Dash and Monika Singh
5.1 Introduction 126
5.2 What are Microalgae? 128
5.3 Some Biodegradable Pollutants 128
5.4 Overview of Plastics 129
5.5 Bioremediation of Plastics 130
5.6 Microalgae’s Effect on Microplastics 133
5.7 Microplastics’ Effect on Microalgae 134
5.8 Techniques Used for Analysis of Plastic Biodegradation 135
5.9 Factors Influencing the Deterioration of Plastics Using Microorganisms 138
5.9.1 Biological Factors 138
5.9.2 Moisture and pH 138
5.9.3 Environmental Factors 139
5.10 Future Prospects 139
5.11 Conclusion 140
References 141
6 Application of Algae and Bacteria in Aquaculture 147
Anne Bhambri, Santosh Kumar Karn and Arun Kumar
6.1 Introduction 148
6.2 The Major Problem of Nitrite and Ammonia in Aquaculture 150
6.3 Techniques for Nitrite, Nitrate and Ammonia Removal 151
6.4 Beneficial Application of Algae in Aquaculture 151
6.5 Algae and Bacteria for Nitrite, Nitrate and Ammonia Transformation 153
6.6 Conclusion 155
Acknowledgments 156
References 156
7 Heavy Metal Bioremediation and Toxicity Removal from Industrial Wastewater 163
Namrata Gupta, Monika Singh, Piyush Gupta, Preeti Mishra and Vijeta Gupta
7.1 Introduction 164
7.2 Environmental Heavy Metal Sources 165
7.3 Heavy Metal Sources of Water Treatment Plants 166
7.4 Heavy Metal Toxicity in Relation to Living Organisms 168
7.5 Remediation Technologies for Heavy Metal Decontamination 170
7.5.1 Conventional Methods 170
7.5.1.1 Chemical Precipitation 170
7.5.1.2 Ion Exchange 170
7.5.1.3 Membrane Filtration 170
7.5.1.4 Reverse Osmosis 171
7.5.2 Ultrafiltration 171
7.5.3 Microfiltration 171
7.5.4 Nanofiltration 171
7.5.5 Electrodialysis 171
7.6 Biological Approach in the Remediation of Heavy Metals 172
7.6.1 Bacteria as Heavy Metal Biosorbents 173
7.6.2 Algae as Heavy Metal Biosorbents 173
7.6.3 Fungi as Heavy Metal Biosorbents 174
7.6.4 Phytoremediation 174
7.7 Mechanism Involved in Biosorption 174
7.7.1 Intracellular Sequestration 179
7.7.2 Extracellular Sequestration 180
7.7.3 Extracellular Barrier of Metal Prevention in Microbial Cells 180
7.7.4 Metals Methylation 180
7.7.5 Heavy Metal Ions Remediation by Microbes 181
7.8 Alga-Mediated Mechanism 181
7.9 Application of Biosorption for Waste Treatment Technology 181
7.10 Microbial Heavy Metal Remediation Factors 183
7.11 Conclusion 185
7.12 Future Prospects 186
References 186
8 The Application of DNA Transfer Techniques That Have Been Used in Algae 195
Thilini Jayaprada and Jayani J. Wewalwela
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Conventional DNA Transfer Techniques in Algae 198
8.2.1 Electroporation 198
8.2.2 Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation 200
8.2.3 Bacterial Conjugation 201
8.2.4 Biolistic Particle Bombardment 202
8.2.5 Agitation with Glass Beads 203
8.3 Novel Emerging DNA Transfer Techniques in Algae 204
8.3.1 Protoplast Fusion 204
8.3.2 Liposome-Mediated Transformation 205
8.3.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks 206
8.3.4 Cell-Penetrating Polymers 206
8.3.5 Cell-Penetrating Peptides 207
8.3.6 Nanoparticle-Mediated Transformation 208
8.4 Limitations to Genetic Transformation in Algae 208
8.4.1 Cell Wall as a Significant Barrier 208
8.4.2 Native Antibiotics Resistance 209
8.4.3 Low Genetic Stability of Transgenes 210
8.5 Future Prospects of Algae Transformation 210
References 214
9 Algae Utilization as Food and in Food Production: Ascorbic Acid, Health Food, Food Supplement and Food Surrogate 225
Abiola Folakemi Olaniran, Bolanle Adenike Akinsanola, Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo, Joshua Opeyemi Folorunsho, Yetunde Mary Iranloye, Clinton Emeka Okonkwo and Omorefosa Osarenkhoe Osemwegie
9.1 Introduction 226
9.2 The Utilization of Algae 227
9.2.1 Use of Algae in the Food Industry 227
9.2.2 Macroalgae with Application Prospects in Food 230
9.2.3 Microalgae Application Prospects in Foods 231
9.3 Pharmacological Potential of Algae in Foods 232
9.3.1 Algae Produced Vitamins 232
9.4 Future and Prospect of Edible Algae 233
9.5 Conclusion 235
References 235
10 Seasonal Variation of Phytoplanktonic Communities in Fishery Nurseries in the City of Inhumas (GO) and Its Surroundings 241
Renato Araújo Teixeira, Gustavo de Paula Sousa, Josué Nazário de Lima, Thaynara de Morais Maia, Marajá João Alves de Mendonça Filho, Joy Ruby Violet Stephen and Angel José Vieira Blanco
10.1 Introduction 242
10.2 Material and Methods 246
10.2.1 Materials 246
10.2.2 Methods 246
10.3 Results 246
10.4 Conclusion 259
References 260
11 Role of Genetical Conservation for the Production of Important Biological Molecules Derived from Beneficial Algae 263
Charles Oluwasun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Babatunde Oluwafemi Adetuyi, Umme Laila, Muhammad Muddasar Saeed, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Inobeme Abel, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Nyejirime Young Wike, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Arshad Farid and Shakira Ghazanfar
11.1 Introduction 264
11.2 Application of Algae in Various Fuels 265
11.3 Algae and Their Pharmaceutical Application 266
11.4 Relevance of Some Algae Derivative Components as Well as Their Effects on Human Health 268
11.5 Genetic Resources and Algae 270
11.6 Conclusions 270
References 270
12 Relevance of Biostimulant Derived from Cyanobacteria and Its Role in Sustainable Agriculture 281
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Fahad Said, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Inobeme Abel, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Nyejirime Young Wike, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Arshad Farid, Shakira Ghazanfar, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Chibuzor Victory Chukwu and Mohammed Bello Yerima
12.1 Introduction 282
12.2 Biostimulants Derived from Cyanobacteria for Boosting Agriculture 283
12.3 Modes of Action Involved in the Application Microorganism as Biostimulant 285
12.4 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 287
References 287
13 Biofertilizer Derived from Cyanobacterial: Recent Advances 295
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Babatunde Oluwafemi Adetuyi, Fahad Said Khan, Abid Rashid, Hina Anwar, Rida Zainab, Mehwish Iqbal, Victoria Olaide Adenigba, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Inobeme Abel, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Nyejirime Young Wike, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Arshad Farid, Shakira Ghazanfar, Chibuzor Victory Chukwu and Mohammed Bello Yerima
13.1 Introduction 296
13.2 Biological Fertilizers 298
13.3 Biofuel Production Technology 306
13.4 Significant of Biofertilizers 307
13.5 Relevance of Cyanobacteria 308
13.6 Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizer 308
13.7 Conclusion 311
References 311
14 Relevance of Algae in the Agriculture, Food and Environment Sectors 321
Olotu Titilayo and Charles Oluwasun Adetunji
14.1 Introduction 321
14.2 Fourth Generation Biofuel: Next Generation Algae 323
14.3 Next Generation Algae: Application in Agriculture 323
14.4 Next Generation Algae: Application in the Environment 324
14.5 Conclusion 325
References 325
15 Application of Biofuels for Bioenergy: Recent Advances 331
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Babatunde Oluwafemi Adetuyi, Fahad Said, Tehreem Riaz, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Inobeme Abel, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Nyejirime Young Wike, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Arshad Farid, Shakira Ghazanfar, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Chibuzor Victory Chukwu and Mohammed Bello Yerima
15.1 Introduction 332
15.2 General Overview 334
15.3 Algae Production and Cultivation 335
15.3.1 Harvesting 336
15.3.2 Genetically Modified Organisms 337
15.3.3 Growth Control 338
15.3.4 Production of Biofuels from Algae 338
15.3.5 Biochemical Conversion 338
15.3.6 Thermochemical Process 339
15.3.7 Transesterification 339
15.4 Algal Biofuels from Macroalgae 339
15.5 Algal Biofuels from Cyanobacteria and Microalgae 339
15.6 Types of Algal Biofuels 341
15.6.1 Hydrocarbons 341
15.6.2 Bioethanol 341
15.6.3 Isobutanol 341
15.6.4 Isoprene 342
15.6.5 Biodiesel 343
15.6.6 Biohydrogen 344
15.6.7 Biomethane 344
15.7 Biomass Supply 344
15.7.1 Biomass from Dedicated Energy Crops 345
15.7.2 Biomass Debris and Waste 345
15.8 Organic Material-Based Energy: CO2 Impartiality and Its Effects on Carbon Pools 346
15.9 Non-CO2 GHG Emissions in Bioenergy Systems 347
15.9.1 N2O Emissions 347
15.9.2 Ch4 Emanations 347
15.10 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 348
15.10.1 Biodiesel Production 349
15.11 Futurity Progression in Bioenergy 349
15.11.1 Second Generation Biofuels 349
15.11.2 Biorefinery 350
15.12 Conclusion 351
References 351
Index 361
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