Optical Imaging and Microscopy

by Torok, Peter; Kao, Fu-Jen

• ISBN13: 9783540695639
• ISBN10: 354069563X
• eBook ISBN(s): 9783540695653
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-10-04
• Publisher: Springer Verlag
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

This text on contemporary optical systems is intended for optical researchers and engineers, graduate students and optical microscopists in the biological and biomedical sciences. This second edition contains two completely new chapters. In addition most of the chapters from the first edition have been revised and updated. The book consists of three parts: The first discusses high-aperture optical systems, which form the backbone of optical microscopes. An example is a chapter new in the second edition on the emerging field of high numerical aperture diffractive lenses which seems to have particular promise in improving the correction of lenses. In this part particular attention is paid to optical data storage. The second part is on the use of non-linear optical techniques, including nonlinear optical excitation (total internal reflection fluorescence, second and third harmonic generation and two photon microscopy) and non-linear spectroscopy (CARS). The final part of the book presents miscellaneous techniques that are either novel or well known but finding new applications. An example of the latter is photonic force microscopy that is now rapidly becoming an exciting and indispensable tool in shedding light on the inner working of certain cells or measuring nano-mechanical properties of single molecules.

Table of Contents

High Aperture Optical Systems and Super-Resolution
Exploring Living Cells and Molecular Dynamics with Polarized Light Microscopy	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Equipment Requirement	p. 4
Biological Examples	p. 8
Video-Enhanced Microscopy	p. 12
The LC Pol-Scope	p. 13
The Centrifuge Polarizing Microscope	p. 14
Polarized Fluorescence of Green Fluorescent Protein	p. 17
Concluding Remarks	p. 18
References	p. 19
Characterizing High Numerical Aperture Microscope Objective Lenses	p. 21
Introduction	p. 21
Disclaimer	p. 21
Objective Lens Basics	p. 22
Point Spread Function	p. 23
Fibre-Optic Interferometer	p. 24
PSF Measurements	p. 26
Chromatic Aberrations	p. 28
Apparatus	p. 28
Axial Shift	p. 30
Pupil Function	p. 31
Phase-Shifting Interferometry	p. 32
Zernike Polynomial Fit	p. 33
Restoration of a 3-D Point Spread Function	p. 36
Empty Aperture	p. 37
Esoterica	p. 39
Temperature Variations	p. 39
Apodization	p. 40
Polarization Effects	p. 42
Conclusion	p. 42
References	p. 43
Diffractive Optical Lenses in Imaging Systems -High-Resolution Microscopy and Diffractive Solid Immersion Systems	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Basics	p. 46
Fundamentals	p. 46
Dispersion - Achromatization-Apochromatization	p. 47
Diffraction Efficiency	p. 49
Applications	p. 52
Hybrid Lens System for High Resolution DUV Mask Inspection	p. 53
Design and Realization	p. 53
Application Examples	p. 56
Resolution Enhancementwith Solid Immersion Lens (SIL)	p. 60
DUV Microscopy with NIR Autofocus: Wavelength Selective DOE Combination	p. 61
Diffraction Based Solid Immersion Lens	p. 63
dSIL: Concept and Phase Effects	p. 65
dSIL: Experimental	p. 66
Final Remarks	p. 68
References	p. 68
Diffractive Read-Out of Optical Discs	p. 71
Introduction	p. 71
Historic Overview of Video and Audio Recording onOptical Media	p. 71
The Early Optical Video System	p. 73
The Origin of the CD-System	p. 74
The Road Towards the DVD-System	p. 75
Overview of the Optical Principles of the CD- and the DVD-System	p. 76
Optical Read-Out of the High-Frequency Information Signal	p. 76
Optical Error Signals for Focusing and Radial Trackingof theInformation	p. 81
Examplesof Light Paths	p. 84
Radial Tracking for DVD	p. 86
A Diffraction Model for the DPD and DTD Tracking Signal	p. 86
The Influence of Detector Misalignment on the Tracking Signal	p. 88
he DTD Tracking Signal for the DVD-System	p. 90
The DTD2 and the DTD4 Signal in the Presence of Defocus	p. 92
Compatibility Issues for the DVD-and the CD-System	p. 93
The Substrate-Induced Spherical Aberration	p. 95
The Effective Optical Transfer Function	p. 99
The Two-Wavelength Light Path	p. 100
Efficient Calculation Scheme for the Detector Signal	p. 100
Optical Configurationand the FFT-Approach	p. 101
The Analytic Approach	p. 102
The Harmonic Components of the Detector Signal	p. 105
The Representation of the Function Fmn(x, y)	p. 107
Orthogonalityin Pupil and Image Plane	p. 109
Conclusion	p. 110
References	p. 110
Superresolution in Scanning Optical Systems	p. 113
Introduction	p. 113
Direct Methods	p. 114
Pendry Lens	p. 114
Kino's Solid Immersion Lens	p. 117
Toraldo di Francia's Apodising Masks	p. 117
Inverse Methods and Image-Plane Masks	p. 120
Optical Systemsfor Scanning Imaging	p. 122
Analytical Results	p. 124
Numerical Results	p. 127
The Comparison of Non-linear Optical Scanning Systems	p. 130
High-Aperture Image-Plane Masks	p. 133
References	p. 135
Depth of Field Control in Incoherent Hybrid Imaging Systems	p. 137
Introduction	p. 137
Hybrid Imaging Systems	p. 137
Digital Post-Processing	p. 138
New Metricfor Defocused Image Blurring	p. 138
Extended Depth of Field	p. 139
Design of a Rectangular EDF Phase Plate	p. 140
Performance of a Logarithmic Phase Plate	p. 143
Performance Comparison of Different EDF Phase Plates	p. 151
Reduced Depthof Field	p. 154
Design of a Rectangular RDF Phase Plate	p. 154
Performance of a Rectangular RDF Phase Grating	p. 156
Effect of Optical Detector on Depth of Field Control	p. 159
Effect of Additive White Noise at the Optical Detector	p. 159
Charge-Coupled Device-Limited PSF	p. 161
CCD Effect on Depth of Field Extension	p. 163
CCD Effect on Depth of Field Reduction	p. 164
Conclusions	p. 165
References	p. 167
Wavefront Coding Fluorescence Microscopy Using High Aperture Lenses	p. 169
Extended Depthof Field Microscopy	p. 169
Methods for Extending the Depth of Field	p. 170
High Aperture Fluorescence Microscopy Imaging	p. 172
Experimental Method	p. 173
PSF and OTF Results	p. 175
Biological Imaging Results	p. 177
Wavefront Coding Theory	p. 178
Derivationofthe Cubic Phase Function	p. 179
Paraxial Model	p. 179
High Aperture PSF Model	p. 180
High Aperture OTF Model	p. 182
Defocused OTF and PSF	p. 183
Simulation Results	p. 184
Discussion	p. 188
Conclusion	p. 190
References	p. 191
Nonlinear Techniques in Optical Imaging
Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 195
Featuresand Applications	p. 195
Theoretical Principles	p. 198
Infinite Plane Waves	p. 198
Finite Width Incident Beams	p. 203
Intermediate Layers	p. 203
Combination of TIR with Other Fluorescence Techniques	p. 205
Surface Near Field Emission Imaging	p. 207
Measurement of Distances from a Surface	p. 209
Variable Incidence Angle TIR: Concentration Profiles	p. 211
Image Deconvolution	p. 212
Optical Configurations	p. 212
High Aperture Objective-Based TIR	p. 212
TIRF with a Prism	p. 217
TIR from Multiple Directions	p. 223
Rapid Chopping between TIR and EPI	p. 224
Surface Near-Field Imaging	p. 225
General Experimental Considerations	p. 226
TIRF vs.other Optical Section Microscopies	p. 231
References	p. 233
Nonlinear Optical Microscopy	p. 237
Introduction	p. 237
Second Harmonic Nonlinear Microscopy	p. 239
Basic Principle of SHG	p. 239
Coherence Effects in SH Microscopy	p. 242
Scanning Near-Field Nonlinear Second Harmonic Generation	p. 243
Sum Frequency Generation Microscopy	p. 246
Basic Principle of Sum Frequency Generation	p. 246
Far-Field SFG Microscopy	p. 247
Near-Field SFG Imaging	p. 250
Third Harmonic Generation Microscopy	p. 251
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy	p. 252
Multiphoton Excited Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 256
Two-Photon Excited Fluorescence (TPEF) Microscopy	p. 257
TPEF Far-Field Microscopy Using Multipoint Excitation	p. 260
4-Pi Confocal TPEF Microscopy	p. 261
Simultaneous SHG/TPEF Microscopy	p. 262
Three-Photon-Excited Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 263
Stimulated-Emission-Depletion (STED) Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 263
Conclusion	p. 264
References	p. 265
Parametric Nonlinear Optical Techniques in Microscopy	p. 269
Introduction	p. 269
Nonlinear Optics - Parametric Processes	p. 270
Introduction	p. 270
Optical Sectioning Capability	p. 272
Second Harmonic Generation (SHG)	p. 272
Third Harmonic Generation (THG)	p. 273
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS)	p. 274
Third Harmonic Generation (THG)Microscopy	p. 275
General Characteristics	p. 275
Selected Applications	p. 277
Summary	p. 280
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS)Microscopy	p. 281
General Characteristics	p. 281
Multiplex CARS	p. 283
Summary	p. 286
Conclusion	p. 286
References	p. 288
Second Harmonic Generation Microscopy Versus Third Harmonic Generation Microscopy in Biological Tissues	p. 291
Introduction	p. 291
SHG Microscopy	p. 292
Bio-Photonic Crystal Effect in Biological SHG Microscopy	p. 293
THG Microscopy	p. 300
Conclusion	p. 302
References	p. 303
Miscellaneous Methods in Optical Imaging
Adaptive Optics	p. 307
Introduction	p. 307
Historical Background	p. 308
Strehl Ratioand Wavefront Variance	p. 311
Wavefront Sensing	p. 312
Deformable Mirrorsand Other Corrective Devices	p. 315
The Control System	p. 317
Low Cost AO Systems	p. 320
Current Research Issues in Astronomical Adaptive Optics	p. 322
Adaptive Optics and the Eye	p. 324
References	p. 326
Low-Coherence Interference Microscopy	p. 329
Introduction	p. 329
Geometry of the Interference Microscope	p. 332
Principle of Low-Coherence Interferometry	p. 333
Analysis of White-Light Interference Fringes	p. 335
Digital Filtering Algorithms	p. 336
Phase Shift Algorithms	p. 336
Spatial Coherence Effects	p. 338
Experimental Setup	p. 339
The Illumination System	p. 339
The Interferometer	p. 339
Experimental Results	p. 341
Discussionand Conclusion	p. 342
References	p. 344
Surface Plasmon and Surface Wave Microscopy	p. 347
Introduction	p. 347
Overview of S Pand Surface Wave Properties	p. 348
Surface Wave Generation and Contrast Mechanisms in Surface Wave Microscopy	p. 354
Surface Plasmon Microscopy - Kretschmann Prism Based Methods	p. 361
Objective Lenses for Surface Plasmon Microscopy	p. 363
Objective Lens Based Surface Plasmon Microscopy: Non Interferometric Methods	p. 368
Scanning Methods	p. 368
Wide Field SP and Surface Wave Microscopy	p. 369
Scanning Fluorescence Surface Wave Microscopy	p. 374
Objective Lens Interferometric Techniques	p. 383
Scanning Interferometry	p. 383
Widefield Interferometric Techniques	p. 389
Discussionand Conclusions	p. 392
Relationship of SP Methods with TIR(F)M Methods	p. 393
Localized SPs	p. 394
'Exotic' Techniques	p. 394
References	p. 396
Optical Coherence Tomography	p. 401
Introduction	p. 401
Principlesof Operation	p. 402
Technological Developments	p. 406
Optical Sources for High-Resolution Imaging	p. 406
Spectroscopic OCT	p. 408
Real-Time Volumetric OCT Imaging	p. 410
Optical Coherence Microscopy	p. 411
Beam Delivery Systems	p. 414
Contrast Agentsand Molecular Imaging	p. 415
Applications	p. 418
Developmental Biology	p. 418
Cellular Imaging	p. 420
Medical and Surgical Microscopy - Identifying Tumors and Tumor Margins	p. 423
Image-Guided Surgery	p. 426
Materials Investigations	p. 428
Conclusions	p. 430
References	p. 432
Near-Field Optical Microscopy and Application to Nanophotonics	p. 437
Introduction	p. 437
Nano-Scale Fabrication	p. 438
Depositing Zinc and Aluminum	p. 438
Depositing Zinc Oxide	p. 443
Nanophotonic Devices and Integration	p. 444
Switching by Nonlinear Absorption in a Single Quantum Dot	p. 445
Switching by Optical Near-Field Interaction Between Quantum Dots	p. 446
Optical Storage and Readout by Optical Near-Field	p. 449
Conclusion	p. 452
References	p. 453
Optical Trapping of Small Particles	p. 455
Introduction	p. 455
Optical Trapping	p. 456
Principles	p. 456
Optical Tweezers	p. 458
Photonic Force Microscopy	p. 460
3D Trackingwith Coherent Light	p. 463
Atom Traps	p. 463
Theory	p. 464
Arbitrary Focused Fields	p. 464
Scatteringby Focused Fields	p. 466
Interferometric Position Detection	p. 466
Trappingforces	p. 469
Thermal Noise	p. 471
Experimental Setupand Techniques	p. 472
Mechanicsandoptics	p. 472
Lasersand Probes	p. 473
Electronics	p. 474
Calibration of Trap and Position Detector	p. 474
Time-Multiplexed and Holographic Optical Traps	p. 478
Applicationsin Brownian Systems	p. 479
Particle Bindingand Uptakebya Living Cell	p. 480
Imaging Nano-Mechanical Properties of Single Molecules	p. 481
Summaryand Outlook	p. 483
References	p. 483
Index	p. 491
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