Optical Imaging and Microscopy : Techniques and Advanced Systems

by Torok, Peter

• ISBN13: 9783540434931
• ISBN10: 3540434933
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-06-01
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

This text on contemporary optical systems is intended for optical researchers and engineers, graduate students and optical microscopists in the biological and biomedical sciences. It consists of three parts: The first discusses high-aperture optical systems, which form the backbone of optical microscopes. Here particular attention is paid to optical data storage. The second part is on the use of non-linear optical techniques, including non-linear optical excitation (second and third harmonic generation and two-photon microscopy) and non-linear spectroscopy (CARS). The final part of the book presents miscellaneous techniques that are either novel or well known but finding new applications. An example of the latter is adaptive optics, which is a well-established method, for example, in astronomy. However, its application in eye imaging in combination with high power pulsed lasers, opens a novel approach to eye surgery.

Table of Contents

High Aperture Optical Systems and Super-Resolution
Exploring Living Cells and Molecular Dynamics with Polarized Light Microscopy	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Equipment Requirement	p. 3
Biological Examples	p. 8
Video-Enhanced Microscopy	p. 12
The LC Pol-Scope	p. 13
The Centrifuge Polarizing Microscope	p. 14
Polarized Fluorescence of Green Fluorescent Protein	p. 17
Concluding Remarks	p. 18
References	p. 19
Characterizing High Numerical Aperture Microscope Objective Lenses	p. 21
Introduction	p. 21
Disclaimer	p. 21
Objective Lens Basics	p. 22
Point Spread Function	p. 23
Fibre-Optic Interferometer	p. 24
PSF Measurements	p. 25
Chromatic Aberrations	p. 28
Apparatus	p. 28
Axial Shift	p. 30
Pupil Function	p. 31
Phase-Shifting Interferometry	p. 32
Zernike Polynomial Fit	p. 33
Restoration of a 3-D Point Spread Function	p. 36
Empty Aperture	p. 37
Esoterica	p. 39
Temperature Variations	p. 39
Apodization	p. 40
Polarization Effects	p. 42
Conclusion	p. 42
References	p. 43
Diffractive Read-Out of Optical Discs	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Historic Overview of Video and Audio Recording on Optical Media	p. 45
The Early Optical Video System	p. 47
The Origin of the CD-System	p. 48
The Road Towards the DVD-System	p. 49
Overview of the Optical Principles of the CD- and the DVD-System	p. 50
Optical Read-Out of the High-Frequency Information Signal	p. 50
Optical Error Signals for Focusing and Radial Tracking of the Information	p. 55
Examples of Light Paths	p. 58
Radial Tracking for DVD	p. 60
A Diffraction Model for the DPD and DTD Tracking Signal	p. 60
The Influence of Detector Misalignment on the Tracking Signal	p. 62
The DTD Tracking Signal for the DVD-System	p. 65
The DTD2 and the DTD4 Signal in the Presence of Defocus	p. 66
Compatibility Issues for the DVD-and the CD-System	p. 68
The Substrate-Induced Spherical Aberration	p. 69
The Effective Optical Transfer Function	p. 73
The Two-Wavelength Light Path	p. 74
Efficient Calculation Scheme for the Detector Signal	p. 75
Optical Configuration and the FFT-Approach	p. 75
The Analytic Approach	p. 77
The Harmonic Components of the Detector Signal	p. 80
The Representation of the Function F[subscript m,n](x, y)	p. 81
Orthogonality in Pupil and Image Plane	p. 83
Conclusion	p. 84
References	p. 84
Superresolution in Scanning Optical Systems	p. 87
Introduction	p. 87
Direct Methods	p. 88
Pendry Lens	p. 88
Kino's Solid Immersion Lens	p. 91
Toraldo di Francia's Apodising Masks	p. 91
Inverse Methods and Image-Plane Masks	p. 94
Optical Systems for Scanning Imaging	p. 96
Analytical Results	p. 98
Numerical Results	p. 101
The Comparison of Non-linear Optical Scanning Systems	p. 104
High-Aperture Image-Plane Masks	p. 107
References	p. 109
Depth of Field Control in Incoherent Hybrid Imaging Systems	p. 111
Introduction	p. 111
Hybrid Imaging Systems	p. 111
Digital Post-Processing	p. 112
New Metric for Defocused Image Blurring	p. 112
Extended Depth of Field	p. 113
Design of a Rectangular EDF Phase Plate	p. 114
Performance of a Logarithmic Phase Plate	p. 119
Performance Comparison of Different EDF Phase Plates	p. 125
Reduced Depth of Field	p. 128
Design of a Rectangular RDF Phase Plate	p. 130
Performance of a Rectangular RDF Phase Grating	p. 132
CCD Effect on Depth of Field Control	p. 136
Charge-Coupled Device-Limited PSF	p. 136
CCD Effect on Depth of Field Extension	p. 136
CCD Effect on Depth of Field Reduction	p. 138
Conclusions	p. 140
References	p. 141
Wavefront Coding Fluorescence Microscopy Using High Aperture Lenses	p. 143
Extended Depth of Field Microscopy	p. 143
Methods for Extending the Depth of Field	p. 144
High Aperture Fluorescence Microscopy Imaging	p. 146
Experimental Method	p. 147
PSF and OTF Results	p. 149
Biological Imaging Results	p. 151
Wavefront Coding Theory	p. 152
Derivation of the Cubic Phase Function	p. 153
Paraxial Model	p. 153
High Aperture PSF Model	p. 154
High Aperture OTF Model	p. 156
Defocused OTF and PSF	p. 157
Simulation Results	p. 158
Discussion	p. 162
Conclusion	p. 164
References	p. 165
Nonlinear Techniques in Optical Imaging
Nonlinear Optical Microscopy	p. 169
Introduction	p. 169
Second Harmonic Nonlinear Microscopy	p. 170
Basic Principle of SHG	p. 170
Coherence Effects in SH Microscopy	p. 174
Scanning Near-Field Nonlinear Second Harmonic Generation	p. 175
Sum Frequency Generation Microscopy	p. 177
Basic Principle of Sum Frequency Generation	p. 177
Far-Field SFG Microscopy	p. 178
Near-Field SFG Imaging	p. 179
Third Harmonic Generation Microscopy	p. 180
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy	p. 182
Multiphoton Excited Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 184
Two-Photon Excited Fluorescence (TPEF) Microscopy	p. 185
TPEF Far-Field Microscopy Using Multipoint Excitation	p. 188
4-Pi Confocal TPEF Microscopy	p. 189
Simultaneous SHG/TPEF Microscopy	p. 190
Three-Photon-Excited Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 191
Stimulated-Emission-Depletion (STED) Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 192
Conclusion	p. 193
References	p. 193
Parametric Nonlinear Optical Techniques in Microscopy	p. 197
Introduction	p. 197
Nonlinear Optics--Parametric Processes	p. 198
Introduction	p. 198
Optical Sectioning Capability	p. 200
Second Harmonic Generation (SHG)	p. 200
Third Harmonic Generation (THG)	p. 201
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS)	p. 202
Third Harmonic Generation (THG) Microscopy	p. 204
General Characteristics	p. 204
Selected Applications	p. 205
Summary	p. 209
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) Microscopy	p. 209
General Characteristics	p. 209
Multiplex CARS	p. 210
Summary	p. 214
Conclusion	p. 214
References	p. 216
Second Harmonic Generation Microscopy Versus Third Harmonic Generation Microscopy in Biological Tissues	p. 219
Introduction	p. 219
SHG Microscopy	p. 220
Bio-Photonic Crystal Effect in Biological SHG Microscopy	p. 221
THG Microscopy	p. 228
Conclusion	p. 230
References	p. 231
Miscellaneous Methods in Optical Imaging
Adaptive Optics	p. 235
Introduction	p. 235
Historical Background	p. 236
Strehl Ratio and Wavefront Variance	p. 239
Wavefront Sensing	p. 240
Deformable Mirrors and Other Corrective Devices	p. 243
The Control System	p. 245
Low Cost AO Systems	p. 248
Current Research Issues in Astronomical Adaptive Optics	p. 250
Adaptive Optics and the Eye	p. 252
References	p. 254
Low-Coherence Interference Microscopy	p. 257
Introduction	p. 257
Geometry of the Interference Microscope	p. 259
Principle of Low-Coherence Interferometry	p. 261
Analysis of White-Light Interference Fringes	p. 263
Digital Filtering Algorithms	p. 264
Phase Shift Algorithms	p. 265
Spatial Coherence Effects	p. 266
Experimental Setup	p. 267
The Illumination System	p. 267
The Interferometer	p. 267
Experimental Results	p. 269
Discussion and Conclusion	p. 271
References	p. 272
Surface Plasmon and Surface Wave Microscopy	p. 275
Introduction	p. 275
Overview of SP and Surface Wave Properties	p. 276
Surface Plasmon Microscopy--Kretschmann Prism Based Methods	p. 282
Objective Lens Based Surface Plasmon Microscopy: Amplitude Only Techniques	p. 285
Objective Lens Based SP Microscopy: Techniques Involving the Phase of the Transmission/Reflection Coefficient	p. 287
Objective Lens Interferometric Techniques	p. 287
Fluorescence Methods and Defocus	p. 294
Discussion	p. 301
SP Microscopy in Aqueous Media	p. 302
Discussion and Conclusions	p. 304
References	p. 306
Optical Coherence Tomography	p. 309
Introduction	p. 309
Principles of Operation	p. 310
Technological Developments	p. 314
Optical Sources for High-Resolution Imaging	p. 314
Spectroscopic OCT	p. 315
Real-Time OCT Imaging	p. 316
Optical Coherence Microscopy	p. 319
Beam Delivery Systems	p. 320
Applications	p. 322
Developmental Biology	p. 322
Cellular Imaging	p. 325
Medical and Surgical Microscopy--Identifying Tumors and Tumor Margins	p. 327
Image-Guided Surgery	p. 329
Materials Investigations	p. 331
Conclusions	p. 332
References	p. 33
Near-Field Optical Microscopy and Application to Nanophotonics	p. 339
Introduction	p. 339
Nano-Scale Fabrication	p. 340
Depositing Zinc and Aluminum	p. 340
Depositing Zinc Oxide	p. 345
Nanophotonic Devices and Integration	p. 346
Switching by Nonlinear Absorption in a Single Quantum Dot	p. 347
Switching by Optical Near-Field Interaction Between Quantum Dots	p. 348
Optical Storage and Readout by Optical Near-Field	p. 351
Conclusion	p. 354
References	p. 355
Optical Trapping of Small Particles	p. 357
Introduction	p. 357
Optical Levitation	p. 358
Momentum Transfer	p. 358
Experimental Setup	p. 360
Applications	p. 361
Optical Trapping	p. 362
Principles	p. 362
Optical Tweezers	p. 364
Photonic Force Microscopy	p. 366
Atom Traps	p. 370
Theory	p. 370
Arbitrary Focused Fields	p. 370
Scattering by Focused Fields	p. 372
Position Detection	p. 373
Trapping Forces	p. 375
Thermal Noise and Trap Calibration	p. 377
Experimental Setup	p. 380
Mechanics and Optics	p. 380
Traps and Probes	p. 381
Electronics	p. 382
Applications of Photonic Force Microscopy	p. 382
3D Thermal Noise Imaging	p. 382
Micro-mechanical Properties of Single Molecules	p. 384
Future Aims in Photonic Force Microscopy	p. 385
References	p. 386
Index	p. 389
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