Optical Wdm Networks

by Mukherjee, Biswanath

• ISBN13: 9780387290553
• ISBN10: 0387290559
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-01-13
• Publisher: Springer-Nature New York Inc

Summary

Research and development on optical wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) networks have matured considerably. While optics and electronics should be used appropriately for transmission and switching hardware, note that "intelligence'' in any network comes from "software,'' for network control, management, signaling, traffic engineering, network planning, etc.The role of software in creating powerful network architectures for optical WDM networks is emphasized.Optical WDM Networks is a textbook for graduate level courses. Its focus is on the networking aspects of optical networking, but it also includes coverage of physical layers in optical networks. The author introduces WDM and its enabling technologies and discusses WDM local, access, metro, and long-haul network architectures. Each chapter is self-contained, has problems at the end of each chapter, and the material is organized for self study as well as classroom use. The material is the most recent and timely in capturing the state-of-the-art in the fast-moving field of optical WDM networking.

Table of Contents

I. Introduction	1	(130)
Optical Networking: Principles and Challenges	3	(40)
Introduction	3	(1)
Telecom Network Overview	4	(2)
Telecom Business Models	6	(3)
Roles of Three Fields in Optical Networking	9	(1)
Cross-Layer Design	10	(2)
TE vs. NE. vs. NP	12	(3)
What is an Optical Network?	15	(3)
Optical Networking: Need + Promise = Challenge!	18	(1)
xDM vs. xDMA	19	(1)
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)	20	(4)
ITU Wavelength Grid	21	(1)
A Sample WDM Networking Problem	22	(2)
WDM Networking Evolution	24	(6)
Point-to-Point WDM Systems	24	(1)
Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer (WADM)	25	(1)
Fiber and Wavelength Crossconnects	25	(4)
Development of WDM Networks	29	(1)
WDM Network Constructions	30	(4)
Broadcast-and-Select (Local) Optical WDM Network	30	(2)
Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Network	32	(2)
WDM Economics	34	(1)
Sample Research Problems	35	(2)
Road Map -- Organization of the Book	37	(6)
Exercises	39	(4)
Enabling Technologies: Building Blocks	43	(88)
Introduction	43	(1)
Optical Fiber	44	(15)
Optical Transmission in Fiber	45	(3)
Single-Mode vs. Multimode Fiber	48	(3)
Attenuation in Fiber	51	(1)
Dispersion in Fiber	52	(1)
Nonlinearities in Fiber	53	(4)
Optical Fiber Couplers	57	(2)
Optical Transmitters	59	(8)
How a Laser Works	59	(3)
Tunable and Fixed Lasers	62	(4)
Optical Modulation	66	(1)
Summary	67	(1)
Optical Receivers and Filters	67	(10)
Photodetection	68	(1)
Tunable Optical Filters	69	(5)
Fixed Filters	74	(1)
Summary of Optical Filtering Technologies	75	(1)
Channel Equalizers	76	(1)
Optical Amplifiers	77	(8)
Optical Amplifier Characteristics	78	(1)
Semiconductor Laser Amplifier	79	(1)
Doped-Fiber Amplifier	80	(2)
Raman Amplifier	82	(3)
Switching Elements	85	(15)
Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers (OADM)	86	(2)
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC)	88	(4)
Clos Architecture	92	(1)
Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)	93	(2)
Nonreconfigurable Wavelength Router	95	(4)
Reconfigurable Wavelength-Routing Switch	99	(1)
Wavelength Conversion	100	(10)
Wavelength Conversion Technologies	103	(7)
Designing WDM Networks: Systems Considerations	110	(12)
Channels	110	(2)
Power Considerations	112	(1)
All-optical Cycle of Elimination	113	(1)
Additional Considerations	114	(1)
Elements of Local-Area WDM Network Design	115	(3)
WDM Wide-Area Network Design Issues	118	(2)
WDM Metro Network Design Issues	120	(1)
Optical Access Network Design Issues	121	(1)
Summary	122	(9)
Exercises	123	(8)
II. Local, Access, and Metro Networks	131	(222)
Single-Hop Networks	133	(50)
Introduction	133	(1)
Constructions of Single-Hop Networks	133	(4)
Characteristics of a Single-Hop System	137	(2)
Experimental WDM Systems	139	(5)
SONATA	140	(1)
LAMBDANET	141	(1)
Rainbow	142	(1)
Fiber-Optic Crossconnect	143	(1)
STARNET	143	(1)
Other Experimental WDM Systems	143	(1)
Other Non-Pretransmission Coordination Protocols	144	(6)
Fixed Assignment	144	(2)
Partial Fixed Assignment Protocols	146	(1)
Random Access Protocols I	147	(1)
Random Access Protocols II	147	(1)
The PAC Optical Network	148	(2)
Pretransmission Coordination Protocols	150	(8)
Partial Random Access Protocols	150	(2)
Improved Random Access Protocols	152	(2)
Receiver Collision Avoidance (RCA) Protocol	154	(2)
Reservation Protocols	156	(2)
Single-Hop Case Study: The Rainbow Protocol	158	(13)
Rainbow Protocol	159	(1)
Model of Rainbow	160	(5)
Analysis of Rainbow	165	(3)
Illustrative Examples of Rainbow	168	(3)
Summary	171	(12)
Exercises	174	(9)
Multihop Networks	183	(40)
Introduction	183	(1)
Characteristics of a Multihop System	183	(3)
Topological Optimization Studies	186	(2)
Flow-Based Optimization	186	(1)
Delay-Based Optimization	187	(1)
Regular Structures	188	(8)
ShuffleNet	188	(3)
de Bruijn Graph	191	(2)
Torus (Manhattan Street Network)	193	(1)
Hypercube	194	(1)
Other Regular Multihop Topologies	195	(1)
Multihop Case Study: GEMNET	196	(13)
GEMNET Architecture	198	(2)
GEMNET Properties	200	(7)
Scalability -- Adapting the Size of a GEMNET	207	(2)
Shared-Channel Multihop Systems	209	(4)
Channel-Sharing in ShuffleNet	209	(1)
Channel-Sharing in GEMNET	210	(3)
Summary	213	(10)
Exercises	216	(7)
Optical Access Networks	223	(52)
Introduction	223	(4)
Challenges in Access Networks	224	(1)
Next-Generation Access Networks	225	(2)
Overview of PON Technologies	227	(3)
Optical Splitters/Couplers	227	(1)
PON Topologies	228	(1)
Burst-Mode Transceivers	228	(2)
Ethernet PON (EPON) Access Network	230	(25)
Ethernet Gaining in Prominence	231	(1)
Principle of Operation	231	(3)
Multi-Point Control Protocol (MPCP)	234	(5)
Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation Algorithms	239	(6)
Considerations for IP-based Services over EPON	245	(10)
Other Types of PONs	255	(2)
APON/BPON	255	(2)
Generalized Framing Procedure PON (GFP-PON)	257	(1)
WDM-PON	257	(7)
Need for WDM in PONs	257	(1)
Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)	258	(1)
WDM-PON Architectures	259	(5)
Scalability of WDM-PON	264	(1)
Deployment of WDM-PONs	264	(4)
Open Access	267	(1)
Summary	268	(7)
Exercises	270	(5)
Optical Metro Networks	275	(78)
Introduction	275	(6)
Metro WDM Solutions	278	(1)
Metro-Edge Solutions	279	(2)
Overview of Traffic Grooming in SONET Ring	281	(7)
Node Architecture	281	(1)
Single-Hop Grooming in SONET/WDM Ring	282	(2)
Multi-Hop Grooming in SONET/WDM Ring	284	(3)
Dynamic Grooming in SONET/WDM Ring	287	(1)
Grooming in Interconnected SONET/WDM Rings	288	(1)
Traffic Grooming in WDM Ring Networks	288	(13)
Problem Definition	288	(4)
Solving the ILPs Directly	292	(1)
Heuristics	293	(4)
Illustrative Numerical Results and Comparisons	297	(4)
Interconnected WDM Ring Networks	301	(18)
Interconnected Rings	301	(4)
Traffic Grooming in Interconnected Rings	305	(9)
Numerical Results and Analysis	314	(5)
Packet Communication using Tunable WADM	319	(20)
Introduction	319	(1)
Protocol	320	(4)
Algorithm for Virtual Paths/Wavelength Assignment	324	(6)
Simulation and Illustrative Results	330	(9)
Online Connection Provisioning using ROADM	339	(7)
Introduction	339	(1)
Tuning Constraint	340	(1)
Problem Statement	341	(2)
Heuristics	343	(1)
Illustrative Numerical Examples	344	(2)
Summary	346	(7)
Exercises	349	(4)
III. Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Networks	353	(514)
Routing and Wavelength Assignment	355	(46)
Introduction	355	(5)
Problem Formulation of RWA	360	(7)
Solution Approach	360	(1)
Problem-Size Reduction	361	(1)
Randomized Rounding	362	(2)
Graph Coloring	364	(3)
Illustrative Examples from ILP	367	(7)
Static Lightpath Establishment (SLE)	368	(3)
Dynamic Lightpath Establishment (DLE)	371	(3)
Routing Subproblem	374	(5)
Fixed Routing	375	(1)
Fixed-Alternate Routing	375	(2)
Adaptive Routing	377	(1)
Fault-Tolerant Routing	378	(1)
Wavelength-Assignment Subproblem (Heuristics)	379	(8)
Illustrative Examples from RWA Subproblem	387	(3)
Simulation Results and Comparison from RWA	390	(6)
Comparison among Wavelength-Assignment Heuristics	390	(4)
Computational Complexity of Heuristics	394	(1)
Comparison of RWA Schemes	394	(2)
Summary	396	(5)
Exercises	398	(3)
Elements of Virtual-Topology Design	401	(32)
Introduction	401	(2)
System Architecture	403	(10)
Motivation	403	(2)
General Problem Statement	405	(2)
An Illustrative Example	407	(6)
Formulation of the Optimization Problem	413	(4)
Formulation Equations	413	(3)
Explanation of Equations	416	(1)
Algorithms	417	(4)
Subproblems	417	(2)
Simulated Annealing	419	(1)
Flow-Deviation Algorithm	420	(1)
Experimental Results	421	(9)
Physical Topology as Virtual Topology (No WDM)	423	(1)
Multiple Point-to-Point Links (No WRS)	423	(1)
Arbitrary Virtual Topology (Full WDM)	424	(1)
Comparisons	424	(4)
Effect of Nodal Degree and Wavelength Requirements	428	(2)
Summary	430	(3)
Exercises	431	(2)
Advanced Topics in Virtual-Topology Optimization	433	(46)
Introduction	433	(2)
Problem Specification of Linear Program (LP)	435	(9)
Linear Formulation	437	(5)
Simplifying Assumptions	442	(2)
Heuristic Approaches	444	(2)
Network Design: Resource Budgeting and Cost Model	446	(4)
Resource Budgeting	447	(1)
Network-Cost Model	448	(2)
Virtual-Topology Reconfiguration	450	(2)
Reconfiguration Algorithm	451	(1)
Illustrative Examples	452	(6)
Virtual-Topology Adaptation under Dynamic Traffic	458	(15)
Problem Definition	459	(4)
Local Optimization for Virtual-Topology Adaptation	463	(8)
Heuristic Adaptation Algorithm for Larger Networks	471	(2)
Summary	473	(6)
Exercises	475	(4)
Wavelength Conversion	479	(28)
Introduction	479	(3)
Basics of Wavelength Conversion	482	(3)
Wavelength Converters	482	(1)
Switches	483	(2)
Network Design, Control, and Management Issues	485	(3)
Network Design	485	(1)
Network Control	486	(2)
Network Management	488	(1)
Benefit Analysis	488	(6)
A Probabilistic Approach to WC Benefits Analysis	489	(2)
A Review of Benefit-Analysis Studies	491	(3)
Benefits of Sparse Conversion	494	(8)
Goals	494	(1)
Simulator	495	(1)
Single Optical Rings	496	(1)
NSFNET	497	(5)
Summary	502	(5)
Exercises	504	(3)
Survivable WDM Networks	507	(54)
Introduction	507	(4)
Terminology	511	(1)
Fault Management in SONET/SDH	512	(6)
Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring (UPSR)	513	(2)
Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring (BLSR)	515	(3)
Fault Management in WDM Mesh Networks	518	(23)
Basic Concepts	518	(5)
Ring Cover, Stacked Rings, and Protection Cycles	523	(4)
Survivable Routing and Wavelength Assignment	527	(9)
Maximizing Sharability For Shared-Protection Schemes	536	(3)
Dynamic Restoration	539	(2)
Advanced Topics in Network Survivability	541	(13)
Service Availability	541	(11)
Service Reliability and Restorability	552	(2)
Summary	554	(7)
Exercises	556	(5)
Light-Tree: Optical Multicasting	561	(60)
Introduction	561	(8)
Light-Tree for Unicast Traffic: An Illustrative Example	564	(1)
Layered-Graph model	565	(2)
Steiner Trees	567	(2)
Multicast-Capable Switch Architectures	569	(4)
Opaque Switch	569	(1)
Transparent Switch	570	(3)
Light-Trees for Unicast Traffic	573	(8)
General Problem Statement	573	(1)
Optimization Problem under Unicast Traffic	574	(6)
Illustrative Numerical Examples	580	(1)
Light-Trees for Broadcast Traffic	581	(4)
General Problem Statement	581	(1)
Optimization Problem under Broadcast Traffic	582	(2)
Illustrative Numerical Example	584	(1)
Light-Trees for Multicast Traffic	585	(18)
General Problem Statement	585	(1)
Problem Formulation for a Network with λ Converters	586	(3)
Variation of Formulation with no λ Converters	589	(3)
Variation of Formulation with Fractional Capacity	592	(1)
Variation of Formulation with Splitters Constraints	593	(3)
Illustrative Numerical Examples	596	(7)
Multicast Tree Protection	603	(12)
Protection Schemes	604	(1)
General Problem Statement	605	(2)
Formulation for a Network without λ Continuity	607	(3)
Problem Formulation for a Network with λ Continuity	610	(2)
Illustrative Numerical Examples	612	(1)
Other Protection Schemes	613	(2)
Other Related Issues on Light-Tree Multicasting	615	(2)
Summary	617	(4)
Exercises	618	(3)
Traffic Grooming	621	(64)
Introduction	621	(3)
Literature Review	623	(1)
Static Traffic Grooming	624	(32)
General Problem Statement	626	(1)
Node Architecture	627	(7)
ILP Formulation of the Static Traffic-Grooming	634	(7)
Illustrative Numerical Results From ILP Formulations	641	(6)
Heuristic Approach	647	(5)
Mathematical Formulation Extension	652	(4)
Dynamic Traffic Grooming	656	(21)
Provisioning Connections in Heterogeneous WDM	657	(5)
A Generic Provisioning Model	662	(6)
Illustrative Numerical Examples	668	(9)
Summary	677	(8)
Exercises	679	(6)
Advanced Topics in Traffic Grooming	685	(38)
Introduction	685	(1)
Hierarchical Switching and Waveband Grooming	686	(10)
Motivation	686	(1)
A Hybrid Node Architecture	687	(6)
Comparison: Hybrid vs. OEO	693	(1)
Research Problems and Challenges	694	(2)
Virtual Concatenation	696	(8)
Background	696	(1)
Virtual Concatenation	697	(1)
Benefits of Virtual Concatenation	698	(5)
Related Technologies	703	(1)
Survivable Traffic Grooming	704	(13)
Introduction	704	(1)
Proposed Schemes	705	(1)
Protection-at-Lightpath (PAL) Level	706	(2)
Mixed Protection-at-Connection (MPAC) Level	708	(2)
Separate Protection-at-Connection (SPAC) Level	710	(2)
A Qualitative Comparison	712	(3)
Illustrative Numerical Results	715	(2)
Summary	717	(6)
Exercises	719	(4)
All-Optical Impairment-Aware Routing	723	(28)
Introduction	723	(2)
Transparent Optical Network	724	(1)
Network Models for RWA	725	(1)
Effects of Transmission Impairments on RWA	725	(1)
Incorporation of Network- and Physical-Layer Effects	726	(1)
Constraints of Physical Impairments	727	(9)
PMD Constraint Model	729	(1)
OSNR Constraint Model	729	(3)
Backward-Pumped DRA Model	732	(4)
Network-Layer Module	736	(2)
Characteristics of Impairment-Aware RWA	738	(7)
Other Related Issues	745	(2)
Other Problems with Impairment Consideration	745	(1)
Security Issues in All-Optical Networks	746	(1)
Summary	747	(4)
Exercises	749	(2)
Network Control and Management	751	(46)
Introduction	751	(3)
Basic Functions of Network Control and Management	754	(2)
Dynamic Routing and Wavelength Assignment	756	(3)
Fixed Routing and Fixed-Alternate-Path Routing	756	(1)
Adaptive Routing Based on Global Information	757	(1)
Adaptive Routing Based on Neighborhood Information	758	(1)
Adaptive Routing Based on Local Information	758	(1)
Wavelength Assignment	759	(1)
Signaling and Resource Reservation	759	(3)
Parallel Reservation	760	(1)
Hop-by-Hop Reservation	760	(2)
Two Connection-Management Approaches	762	(7)
Protocols	762	(1)
Comparison	763	(6)
Fault Management	769	(20)
Network Architecture	774	(1)
Protocol Descriptions	775	(9)
Illustrative Numerical Examples and Discussion	784	(5)
Summary	789	(8)
Exercises	791	(6)
Optical Packet Switching (OPS)	797	(48)
Introduction	797	(1)
Optical Packet Switching (OPS) Basics	798	(5)
Slotted Networks	798	(4)
Unslotted Networks	802	(1)
Header and Packet Format	803	(4)
Typical Contention Resolution in OPS Networks	807	(17)
Optical Buffering	809	(1)
Wavelength Conversion	810	(1)
Space Deflection	810	(1)
Combination Schemes	811	(1)
Simulation Experiments and Performance Comparison	812	(12)
Hybrid Contention Resolution for OPS	824	(3)
Node Architecture	824	(2)
Simulation Configuration	826	(1)
Illustrative Results	826	(1)
Priority-based Routing	827	(5)
Network Architecture and Routing Policies	827	(2)
Illustrative Results	829	(3)
TCP Performance with OPS	832	(5)
Node Architecture	833	(1)
Simulation Configuration and Numerical Results	834	(3)
Experimental OPS Networks	837	(3)
KEOPS Testbed	837	(1)
DAVID Testbed	838	(2)
Advanced Developments in OPS Testbeds	840	(1)
Summary	840	(5)
Exercises	842	(3)
Optical Burst Switching (OBS)	845	(22)
Introduction	845	(3)
Burst Assembly and Scheduling	848	(1)
Signaling Protocols for OBS	849	(4)
Routing Protocols for OBS	853	(3)
Contention Resolution in OBS Networks	856	(2)
Edge and Core Nodes in OBS and Testbeds	858	(1)
New Challenges in OBS	859	(2)
Trends in OBS	861	(2)
Summary	863	(4)
Exercises	864	(3)
A. Further Reading	867	(6)
General Resources and Publications	868	(2)
Enabling Technologies	870	(1)
Tutorials/Surveys/Reviews	870	(1)
Other Books	871	(2)
B. Glossary	873	(10)
Bibliography	883	(58)
Index	941