Pediatric Nutrition Handbook

by Kleinman, Ronald E., M.D.

• ISBN13: 9781581101096
• ISBN10: 1581101090
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-11-01
• Publisher: Amer Academy of Pediatrics

Summary

Updated and greatly expanded for the 21st century, this useful reference provides practicing clinicians with evidence-based guidance on the full spectrum of childhood nutrition issues- a state-of-the-art manual that clinicians will turn to often. The 5th edition reflects new scientific insights into how nutrition influences and directs growth and development from infancy through adolescents, as well as immediate and long-term health. Included are sections on infant, child, and adolescent feeding; micronutrients and macronutrients; nutrition delivery; nutrition in illness; and nutrition and public health.

Table of Contents

I. Feeding the Infant
1. Infant Nutrition and the Development of Gastrointestinal Function	3	(20)
Swallowing, Sucking, and Gastrointestinal Motility	3	(1)
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates	4	(3)
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids	7	(3)
Digestion and Absorption of Protein	10	(3)
Absorption of Water-Soluble Vitamins	13	(1)
Mineral Absorption	14	(9)
2. Nutritional Needs of the Preterm Infant	23	(32)
Energy Requirements	25	(1)
Protein Amount and Type	26	(1)
Fats	27	(1)
Carbohydrates	28	(1)
Minerals	28	(3)
Water-Soluble Vitamins	31	(3)
Fat-Soluble Vitamins	34	(2)
Energy Density and Water Requirements	36	(1)
Human Milk	36	(2)
Facilitating Lactation and Human Milk Handling	38	(1)
Commercial Formulas for Preterm Infants	39	(1)
Enteral Feeding	40	(2)
Parenteral Nutrition	42	(4)
Conclusion	46	(9)
3. Breastfeeding	55	(32)
Rates of Breastfeeding in the United States	55	(2)
The Evidence to Support Breastfeeding	57	(8)
Contraindications to Breastfeeding	65	(1)
Prenatal Considerations	65	(1)
The Early Lactation Experience	66	(1)
Feeding and Hydration of the Breastfed Infant	67	(1)
Growth of the Breastfed Infant	68	(2)
Common Problems of the Breast and Nipple	70	(1)
Bottle Feeding and Supplements	70	(1)
Xenobiotics	71	(1)
Jaundice and Breastfeeding	72	(1)
Nutrition for the Lactating Mother	73	(1)
Collection and Storage of Human Milk	74	(2)
Hospital Lactation Programs	76	(2)
Conclusion	78	(9)
4. Formula Feeding of Term Infants	87	(12)
Standard Cow Milk-Based Formulas	89	(3)
Soy Formulas	92	(2)
Protein Hydrolysate Formulas	94	(1)
Amino Acid-Based Formulas	95	(1)
Follow-up Formulas	95	(1)
Cow Milk	95	(4)
5. Current Legislation and Regulations for Infant Formulas	99	(4)
6. Complementary Feeding	103	(16)
Introduction	103	(1)
Timing of Introduction of Complementary Foods	104	(4)
Vitamin D Supplementation	108	(1)
Formula-Fed Infants	109	(1)
Current Practice	109	(10)
II. Feeding the Child and Adolescent
7. Feeding the Child	119	(18)
Toddlers	119	(2)
Preschoolers	121	(2)
School-Aged Children	123	(1)
Energy and Nutrient Needs	124	(3)
Parenting and the Feeding Relationship	127	(2)
Special Topics	129	(8)
8. Cultural Considerations in Feeding Children	137	(12)
Introduction	137	(1)
Infant Feeding-Foundation of Eating Behavior	138	(1)
Challenges for the Pediatrician	138	(1)
Importance of Addressing Cultural Food Practices	139	(1)
Understanding Cultural Food Practices	139	(1)
Infant Feeding-Foundation of Food Patterns for Life	140	(2)
Cultural Practices of Feeding Infants and Young Children	142	(1)
Intervention Strategies	143	(6)
9. Adolescent Nutrition	149	(6)
Factors Influencing Nutritional Needs of Adolescents	149	(1)
Dietary Reference Intakes	149	(2)
Nutrition Concerns During Adolescence	151	(1)
Nutritional Considerations During Pregnancy	152	(3)
10. Sports Nutrition	155	(12)
Physiology	155	(1)
Diet for Training	156	(1)
Calories	156	(2)
Carbohydrates	158	(1)
Fats	159	(1)
Protein	159	(1)
Water and Electrolytes	160	(1)
Calcium and Iron	161	(1)
Eating for Training	162	(1)
Pre-competition Meal	163	(1)
Nutrition and Hydration During Competition	163	(1)
Weight Control	164	(3)
11. Nutrition During Pregnancy	167	(24)
Assessment of Nutritional Status	167	(1)
Guidelines for Gestational Weight Gain	168	(3)
Nutrient Needs During Pregnancy	171	(6)
Vitamins	177	(3)
Alcohol	180	(1)
Caffeine	180	(1)
Aspartame	180	(1)
Metabolic Disorders	181	(2)
Additional Dietary and Lifestyle Concerns	183	(1)
Exercise During Pregnancy	184	(7)
12. Nutritional Aspects of Vegetarian Diets	191	(18)
Areas of Concern for Children	194	(3)
Vitamins	197	(2)
Minerals	199	(1)
Other Dietary Components	200	(1)
Age-Related Considerations	201	(1)
Principles of Management by Diet Group	202	(1)
Conclusion	203	(6)
13. Fast Foods, Organic Foods, and Fad Diets	209	(20)
Organic Foods	213	(1)
Health Foods	214	(1)
Functional Foods	215	(1)
Bioengineered Foods	215	(4)
Fad Diets	219	(1)
Reducing Diets	219	(2)
Recommendations on Fad Diets	221	(1)
Conclusion	221	(8)
III. Micronutrients and Macronutrients
14. Protein	229	(12)
Recommended Dietary Allowance for Protein	231	(1)
Methods for Determining Protein Requirements	232	(3)
Protein Requirements	235	(3)
Factors Affecting Dietary Protein Requirements	238	(1)
Effects of Insufficient and Excessive Protein Intake	239	(2)
15. Energy	241	(6)
Definitions	241	(3)
Requirements	244	(3)
16. Carbohydrate and Dietary Fiber	247	(14)
Digestion of Disaccharides and Starches	247	(1)
Absorption of Monosaccharides	247	(1)
Metabolism of Glucose	248	(2)
Lactose	250	(2)
Starches	252	(1)
Fiber	253	(8)
17. Fats and Fatty Acids	261	(24)
General Considerations	261	(1)
Dietary Fats	261	(2)
Fat Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Metabolism	263	(2)
Essential Fatty Acids	265	(3)
Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids	268	(9)
Supplementation of Infant Formulas With LC-PUFA	277	(8)
18. Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium	285	(14)
Basic Physiology	285	(1)
Regulation: Calcium and Phosphorus	285	(1)
Regulation: Magnesium	286	(1)
Requirements: Calcium	287	(5)
Phosphorus Requirements	292	(1)
Magnesium Requirements	293	(1)
Dietary Sources: Calcium and Phosphorus	294	(1)
Dietary Sources: Magnesium	295	(4)
19. Iron Deficiency	299	(14)
Consequences of Iron Deficiency	300	(1)
Iron Metabolism and Factors Affecting Iron Balance	301	(2)
Assessment of Iron Status	303	(4)
Specific Recommendations	307	(6)
20. Trace Elements	313	(26)
Zinc	313	(8)
Copper	321	(3)
Manganese	324	(1)
Selenium	325	(3)
Iodine	328	(1)
Other Trace Elements	329	(10)
21. Vitamins	339	(30)
Introduction	339	(6)
Fat-Soluble Vitamins	345	(7)
Water-Soluble Vitamins	352	(7)
Conclusion	359	(10)
IV. Nutrient Delivery Systems
22. Parenteral Nutrition	369	(22)
Catheters	369	(3)
Composition of Solutions for Infants and Children	372	(10)
Ordering Parenteral Nutrition	382	(2)
Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Effects of Parenteral Nutrition	384	(1)
Compatibilities	385	(1)
Transition to Enteral Feedings	385	(1)
Conclusion	385	(6)
23. Enteral Nutrition Support	391	(16)
Indications for Enteral Tube Feedings: Management of Nutrition-Related Disorders	391	(5)
Enteral Formula Selection for Children Aged 1 to 10 Years	396	(4)
Tube Feeding	400	(2)
Continuous Versus Intermittent Feeding	402	(5)
V. Nutrition in Acute and Chronic Illness
24. Assessment of Nutritional Status	407	(18)
Assessment by History	407	(1)
Clinical Assessment	407	(1)
Anthropometry	408	(3)
Head Circumference	411	(1)
Midarm Circumference	412	(1)
Midarm Circumference-to-Head Circumference Ratio	412	(1)
Nutritional Assessment Through the Measurement of Body Composition	412	(2)
Fat-Fold Measurements	414	(1)
Hydrodensitometry	414	(1)
Total Body Potassium	415	(1)
Total Body Water	415	(1)
Neutron Activation	416	(1)
Photon and X-ray Absorptiometry	416	(1)
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis	417	(1)
Total Body Electrical Conductivity	417	(1)
Laboratory Assessment	418	(7)
25. Pediatric Feeding and Swallowing Disorders	425	(18)
Common Conditions Associated With Swallowing Disorders	425	(3)
Consequences of Dysphagia	428	(1)
Recognition of Pediatric Dysphagia	429	(2)
Clinical Evaluation	431	(3)
Instrumental and Radiographic Evaluation of Dysphagia	434	(1)
Treatment	435	(4)
Efficacy of Rehabilitative Dysphagia Management	439	(1)
Conclusion	439	(4)
26. Failure to Thrive (Pediatric Undernutrition)	443	(16)
Definition of Terms	443	(2)
Medical Risk Factors for Malnutrition	445	(2)
Psychosocial Risk Factors for Malnutrition	447	(1)
Approach to the Patient With Failure to Thrive	448	(3)
Treatment of Growth Failure	451	(4)
Prognosis	455	(4)
27. Chronic Diarrheal Disease	459	(12)
Introduction and Pathophysiology	459	(1)
Evaluation of the Infant and Child With Persistent Diarrhea	460	(3)
Differential Diagnosis of Persistent Diarrhea	463	(8)
28. Oral Therapy for Acute Diarrhea	471	(10)
Oral Rehydration Solutions	471	(3)
Early, Appropriate Feeding	474	(1)
Oral Therapy for Diarrhea	475	(6)
29. Inborn Errors of Metabolism	481	(10)
Definitions	481	(1)
Inheritance	481	(1)
Newborn Screening for Inborn Errors of Metabolism	481	(1)
Signs and Symptoms of Inborn Errors of Metabolism	482	(1)
Emergent Therapy of Suspected Inborn Errors of Metabolism	482	(2)
Nutritional Therapy Utilizing Synthetic Medical Foods	484	(1)
Other Nutritional Therapies	484	(4)
Other Therapeutic Modalities	488	(1)
Conclusion	489	(2)
30. Dietary Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Children	491	(24)
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus	491	(1)
Insulin	492	(1)
Nutrition Overview	493	(2)
Meal Plans	495	(1)
Medical Nutrition Therapy Education	495	(2)
Nutrition Intervention	497	(4)
Carbohydrate	501	(1)
Fat	501	(1)
Protein	502	(1)
Sweeteners	503	(1)
Fiber	503	(1)
Exercise	504	(1)
Different Stages for Different Phases	505	(1)
Issues of Weight Loss and Weight Gain	505	(1)
Treatment of Hypoglycemia	506	(1)
Treatment of Hyperglycemia	507	(1)
Cow Milk and Type 1 Diabetes	507	(1)
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus	508	(7)
31. Hypoglycemia in Infants and Children	515	(22)
Introduction	515	(1)
Unique Aspects of Glucose Homeostasis in Infants and Children	515	(3)
Symptoms of Hypoglycemia in Infants and Children	518	(1)
Transient Hypoglycemia of the Newborn	519	(1)
Hypoglycemia of Children	520	(11)
Abnormalities in Substrate Availability	531	(1)
Diagnostic Evaluation	532	(5)
32. Hyperlipidemia	537	(14)
Lipoproteins	538	(1)
Types of Hyperlipidemia	539	(2)
Prevention of Atherosclerosis and Prudent Lifestyle and Diet	541	(1)
Screening for Hyperlipidemia	542	(5)
Treatment	547	(4)
33. Pediatric Obesity	551	(42)
Definition	551	(3)
Epidemiology	554	(2)
Pathophysiology	556	(3)
Systems Integrating Energy Intake and Energy Expenditure Physiology and Molecular Genetics	559	(7)
Clinical and Laboratory Correlates of Obesity in Children	566	(4)
Identification of the Obese Child and Decisions Regarding Therapeutic Intervention	570	(2)
Treatment of the Obese Child	572	(6)
Summary of Therapeutic Options	578	(2)
Summary/Conclusions	580	(13)
34. Food Sensitivity	593	(16)
Definitions	593	(2)
Diagnosis of Hypersensitivity to Food	595	(5)
Differential Diagnosis	600	(1)
Diagnostic Approach	601	(2)
Treatment	603	(2)
Prognosis	605	(1)
Prevention	605	(4)
35. Nutrition and Immunity	609	(20)
Introduction	609	(1)
Early Nutritional-Immunologic System Interactions	610	(5)
Prematurity and Low-Birth-Weight Infants	615	(1)
Micronutrients and Immunity	615	(5)
Summary	620	(9)
36. Nutritional Support for Children Who Are Neurologically Impaired	629	(14)
Introduction	629	(1)
Causes of Malnutrition	630	(1)
Assessment	631	(3)
Nutritional Intervention	634	(5)
Outcome	639	(1)
Conclusion	639	(4)
37. Nutrition of Children Who Are Critically Ill	643	(10)
Metabolic Reserves and Baseline Requirements	643	(1)
Protein Metabolism	644	(1)
Energy Metabolism	645	(2)
Carbohydrate Metabolism	647	(1)
Lipid Metabolism	647	(2)
Vitamin and Trace Mineral Metabolism	649	(1)
Routes of Nutrient Provision	650	(1)
Conclusion	650	(3)
38. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa	653	(18)
Clinical Features	653	(4)
Assessment	657	(7)
Treatment	664	(7)
39. Nutrition of Children With HIV-1 Infection	671	(18)
The Wasting Syndrome	671	(2)
Causes of Malnutrition in AIDS	673	(7)
The Nutritional Effects of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)	680	(1)
Recommendations for Nutritional Support	681	(3)
Conclusion	684	(5)
40. Nutrition for Children With Sickle Cell Disease	689	(6)
Introduction	689	(1)
Nutritional Consequences	689	(2)
Nutrition Support	691	(1)
Summary	692	(3)
41. Nutritional Management of Children With Renal Disease	695	(14)
Introduction	695	(1)
General Philosophy of Medical Nutrition Therapy in Children With Renal Disease	695	(1)
Urinary Tract Infections, Vesicoureteral Reflux, and Urinary Incontinence	695	(4)
Renal Stone Disorders	699	(1)
Renal Tubular Defects	700	(1)
Nephrotic Syndrome	701	(2)
Glomerulonephritis	703	(1)
Acute Renal Failure (ARF)	703	(1)
Chronic Renal Failure	704	(1)
Children on Dialysis	705	(1)
Renal Transplantation	705	(4)
42. Nutritional Management of Children With Cancer	709	(12)
Tumor-Related Effects on Nutritional Status	709	(1)
Host-Related Effects on Nutritional Status	710	(1)
Therapy-Related Effects on Nutritional Status	710	(1)
Psychological Factors	711	(1)
Nutritional Screening	712	(1)
Nutritional Assessment	712	(3)
Nutrition Therapy	715	(1)
Tube Feeding	715	(2)
Parenteral Nutrition	717	(4)
43. Diet in the Prevention of Cancer and Hypertension	721	(6)
Diet and Cancer	721	(1)
Diet and Hypertension	722	(5)
44. Gastrointestinal Disease	727	(10)
Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract	727	(5)
Disease of the Liver	732	(2)
Diseases of the Pancreas	734	(2)
Conclusion	736	(1)
45. Cardiac Disease	737	(20)
Undernutrition in Congenital Heart Disease	738	(1)
Energy Expenditure	738	(1)
Nutrient Losses	738	(1)
Nutrient Intake	739	(1)
Congestive Heart Failure	740	(1)
Cyanotic Heart Disease	741	(1)
Circulatory Shunts	742	(1)
Pulmonary Hypertension	742	(1)
Nutritional Assessment	743	(1)
Nutritional Support	744	(1)
Nutrient Prescription	744	(6)
Feeding Strategies	750	(2)
Monitoring Outcome	752	(5)
46. Nutrition in Cystic Fibrosis	757	(16)
Diagnosis	757	(2)
Assessment of Pancreatic Function Status	759	(1)
Nutritional Care	760	(2)
Specific Guidelines	762	(2)
Commonly Encountered Nutritional Problems	764	(2)
Enzyme Therapy	766	(3)
Vitamin Therapy	769	(4)
47. The Ketogenic Diet	773	(16)
History	773	(1)
Physiological Basis of the Ketogenic Diet	773	(2)
Effectiveness of the Ketogenic Diet	775	(2)
Mechanism of Action	777	(1)
Indications	778	(1)
Contraindications	778	(1)
Micronutrient Deficiencies of the Diet	779	(1)
Adverse Effects	779	(2)
Calculation of the Ketogenic Diet	781	(2)
Supplementation of the Ketogenic Diet	783	(1)
Maintenance of the Ketogenic Diet	783	(1)
Intercurrent Illnesses	783	(1)
Use of Over-the-Counter and Prescription Medications	783	(1)
Adjusting the Diet for Optimal Seizure Control	784	(1)
Discontinuation of the Ketogenic Diet	784	(1)
Conclusion	784	(5)
48. Nutrition and Oral Health	789	(12)
Introduction	789	(1)
Oral Bacteria	789	(1)
Dietary Influences	790	(2)
Malnutrition	792	(1)
Fluoride	793	(4)
Access to Dental Care	797	(1)
Role of the Pediatrician	798	(3)
49. Community Nutrition Services	801	(12)
Nutrition Services Provided Through Federal, State, and Local Health Agencies	801	(3)
Health Agencies: A Nutrition Resource to Provide Service and Identify Qualified Providers	804	(1)
Food Assistance Programs	805	(3)
Supplemental Food Programs	808	(3)
Conclusion	811	(2)
50. Food Labeling	813	(10)
Ingredient Labeling	813	(1)
The Nutrition Facts Panel	814	(2)
Food Labels for Infants and Children Younger Than 4 Years	816	(1)
Nutrition Claims	817	(1)
Health Claims	817	(3)
Juice Labeling	820	(1)
Package Dating	821	(1)
Conclusion	821	(2)
51. Food Safety: Infectious Diseases	823	(14)
Introduction	823	(1)
Food-Borne Diseases	823	(5)
Outbreak Detection and Control	828	(2)
Prevention	830	(3)
Travel	833	(4)
52. Food Safety: Pesticides, Industrial Chemicals, Toxins, Antimicrobial Preservatives/Irradiation, and Indirect Food Additives	837	(22)
Introduction	837	(1)
Food Quality and Protection Act of 1966	838	(1)
Pesticides	839	(3)
Industrial Chemicals	842	(2)
Toxins	844	(3)
Antimicrobial Preservatives	847	(1)
Food Irradiation	847	(5)
Indirect Food Additives	852	(7)
53. New Food Ingredients	859	(20)
Biotechnology	859	(11)
Macronutrient Substitutes	870	(1)
Carbohydrate Replacements	870	(1)
Artificial Sweeteners	870	(4)
Fat Replacers	874	(5)
Appendices
Appendix A	879	(6)
Table A-1 Representative Values for Constituents of Human Milk	880	(5)
Appendix B	885	(34)
Table B-1 Cytotoxic Drugs That May Interfere With Cellular Metabolism of the Nursing Infant	886	(1)
Table B-2 Drugs of Abuse for Which Adverse Effects on the Infant During Breastfeeding Have Been Reported	886	(1)
Table B-3 Radioactive Compounds That Require Temporary Cessation of Breastfeeding	887	(1)
Table B-4 Drugs for Which the Effect on Nursing Infants Is Unknown but May Be of Concern	887	(2)
Table B-5 Drugs That Have Been Associated With Significant Effects on Some Nursing Infants and Should Be Given to Nursing Mothers With Caution	889	(1)
Table B-6 Maternal Medication Usually Compatible With Breastfeeding	889	(7)
Table B-7 Food and Environmental Agents: Effects on Breastfeeding	896	(23)
Appendix C	919	(12)
Table C-1 Dietary Reference Intakes: Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Food and Nutrition Board, The National Academies of Sciences	921	(4)
Table C-2 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL), Food and Nutrition Board, The National Academies of Sciences	925	(3)
Table C-3 Nutrition During Pregnancy	928	(3)
Appendix D	931	(6)
Table D-1 Recommended Nutrient Levels of Infant Formulas (per 100 kcal)	932	(2)
Table D-2 Recommendations of the Expert Panel for Nutrient Levels in Infant Formulas	934	(3)
Appendix E	937	(12)
Table E-1 Human Milk, Cow Milk, and Goat Milk	938	(1)
Table E-2 Cow Milk-Based Infant Formulas (per Liter)	939	(6)
Table E-3 Follow-up Formulas for Infant Feeding (per Liter)	945	(3)
Table E-4 Increasing the Caloric Density of Human Milk and Infant Formula	948	(1)
Appendix F	949	(4)
Table F-1 Soy-Based Formulas (per Liter)	950	(3)
Appendix G	953	(4)
Table G-1 Amino Acid/Protein Hydrolysate-Based Formulas for Infants Nutrition Information Comparison Chart (per Liter)	954	(3)
Appendix H	957	(4)
Table H-1 Formulas for Low-Birth-Weight and Prematurely Born Infants (per Liter)	958	(2)
Table H-2 Human Milk Fortifiers for Premature Infants Fed Human Milk Nutrients Provided When Added to 100 mL of Human Milk	960	(1)
Appendix I	961	(8)
Table I-1 Drugs Whose Absorption Is Increased by Food	962	(1)
Table I-2 Drugs Whose Absorption May Be Delayed by Food	962	(1)
Table I-3 Drugs That Should Be Administered on an Empty Stomach	963	(1)
Table I-4 Miscellaneous Food-Nutrient Effects	964	(2)
Table I-5 Drug-Grapefruit Juice Interactions	966	(3)
Appendix J	969	(24)
J-1 Growth Charts	971	(18)
J-2 Down Syndrome Growth Charts	989	(4)
Appendix K	993	(12)
K-1 Low Birth Weight and Very Low Birth Weight Growth Charts	995	(8)
K-2 Intrauterine Growth Charts	1003	(2)
Appendix L	1005	(12)
Table L-1 Arm Measurements	1006	(6)
Table L-2 Arm Measurements	1012	(2)
Table L-3 Arm Measurements	1014	(3)
Appendix M	1017	(4)
Figure M-1 Food Guide Pyramid for Young Children: A Daily Guide for 2- to 6-Year-Olds	1018	(1)
Table M-1 US Department of Agriculture Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion	1019	(2)
Appendix N	1021	(10)
Table N-1 Iron Content of Selected Foods	1022	(4)
Table N-2 Calcium Content of Foods, mg per Serving	1026	(1)
Table N-3 Zinc Content of Common Household Portions of Selected Foods	1027	(1)
Table N-4 Saturated and Polyunsaturated Fat and Cholesterol Content of Common Foods	1028	(2)
Table N-5 Sodium Content of Foods, mg per Serving	1030	(1)
Appendix O	1031	(28)
Table O-1 Selected Enteral Products for Special Indications	1032	(22)
Table O-2 Enteral Products Grouped by Usage Indication	1054	(1)
Table O-3 Energy and Protein Content of Selected Energy-Dense Foods	1055	(1)
Table O-4 Source for Medical Food Modules for Treatment of Inborn Errors of Metabolism	1056	(3)
Appendix P	1059	(2)
Table P-1 Sports/Nutrition Bars	1060	(1)
Appendix Q	1061	(4)
Table Q-1 Common Fast-Food Meals Chosen by Young Children	1062	(1)
Table Q-2 Common Fast-Food Meals Chosen by Adolescents	1063	(2)
Appendix R	1065	(4)
Figure R-1 Body Surface Area of Children	1066	(1)
Figure R-2 Body Surface Area of Children	1067	(2)
Appendix S	1069	(30)
Table S-1 Conversions From Conventional Units to Système International (SI) Units	1070	(29)
Appendix T	1099	(24)
Table T-1 Exchange Lists for Diabetic Diets	1100	(1)
Table T-2 Food Exchange Lists	1100	(23)
Appendix U	1123	(4)
Table U-1 Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks Calories and Selected Electrolytes (per fluid ounce)	1124	(3)
Appendix V	1127	(4)
Table V-1 Sources of Dietary Fiber	1128	(3)
Appendix W	1131	(2)
Table W-1 Recommended Dietary Fluoride Supplement Schedule	1132	(1)
Appendix X	1133	(2)
Table X-1 Carbohydrate Content of Juices	1134	(1)
Appendix Y	1135	(4)
Table Y-1 Ketogenic Diet: Sample Menus	1136	(3)
Appendix Z	1139
Table Z-1 Brand-Specific Composition of Common Pediatric Parenteral Amino Acid Solutions	1140	(2)
Table Z-2 Currently Available Intravenous Fat Emulsions (in the United States)	1142