The Physical Geography of Western Europe

by Koster, Eduard A.

• ISBN13: 9780199277759
• ISBN10: 0199277753
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-08-04
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

A distinguished team of Western European scholars has written an advanced, full-length physical geography designed to be a state-of -the-art evaluation of the physical environment of Western Europe, being both retrospective and prospective in its perception of environmental change. Theunique natural and regional environments of Western Europe are discussed, as well as the physical geographic framework of the region. Particular emphasis is placed on the impact and responses of human society on the physical environment of the region which is characterized by a very high populationdensity. As an enhanced reference work it will be of enduring value.

Table of Contents

List of Figures	xxiv
List of Tables	xxxi
List of Contributors	xxxii
I. Systematic Framework	1	(182)
Tectonic Evolution, Geology, and Geomorphology	3	(22)
Alain Demoulin
Introduction	3	(1)
The Variscan Landscape	4	(2)
Plate Tectonic Setting of the Variscan Orogeny	4	(1)
Main Orogenic Phases and Tectonic Zones	5	(1)
Permian Tectonics and Palaeogeography	6	(1)
Mesozoic and Cenozoic History of the Major Tectonic Domains	6	(14)
Implications of the Atlantic Rifting: the Aquitaine Basin and the Pyrenees	6	(2)
The Alpine Domain	8	(1)
Tectonic Evolution	8	(2)
Present-Day Structural Pattern of the Western Alps	10	(1)
The Molasse Basin in Southernmost Germany	11	(1)
The Jura Mountains	11	(1)
The West European Rift System	11	(1)
General Configuration	11	(1)
The Main Rift Segments	12	(2)
Associated Volcanism	14	(1)
Rifting Dynamics	15	(1)
The Paris Basin	15	(2)
The North German Basin	17	(1)
The Mesozoic South German Basin and the Thuringian Basin	18	(1)
The Palaeozoic Massifs (Rhenish Shield--Ardennes, French Massif Central, Brittany, Harz, Bohemia)	19	(1)
Long-Term Denudation Rates in Land Areas	20	(2)
References	22	(3)
Neotectonics	25	(14)
Francesco Dramis
Emanuele Tondi
Introduction	25	(1)
State of Stress	25	(1)
Seismicity	26	(1)
Recent Crustal Deformation	27	(8)
Faulting Processes	27	(1)
The Provence Area	27	(2)
The Rhine Graben	29	(2)
Vertical Crustal Movements	31	(1)
The Alps	32	(1)
The Pyrenees	33	(1)
The Armorican Massif	33	(1)
The Bohemian Massif	34	(1)
References	35	(4)
Quaternary Climatic Changes and Landscape Evolution	39	(22)
Jurgen Ehlers
Introduction	39	(1)
Definition of the Quaternary	39	(2)
Subdivision of the Quaternary	41	(2)
The Glaciations	43	(14)
The Gunz Glaciation	43	(1)
Evidence of Pre-Elsterian Glaciation	43	(1)
The Elsterian	43	(4)
Mindel Glaciation	47	(1)
Holsteinian Interglacial	47	(3)
Wacken/Domnitz Interglacial	50	(1)
Saalian Cold Stage	50	(4)
Riss Glaciation	54	(1)
Eemian Interglacial	54	(3)
References	57	(4)
The Last Glaciation and Geomorphology	61	(14)
Margot Bose
Introduction	61	(1)
The Middle Weichselian Ice Advance	61	(4)
Denmark	61	(1)
Schleswig-Holstein	62	(2)
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	64	(1)
The Late Middle Weichselian Ice Advances	65	(5)
The Jutland Peninsula	66	(1)
Schleswig-Holstein	67	(1)
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg	67	(3)
The Pomeranian Phase and Younger Readvances	70	(3)
Aspects of Further Geomorphological Development	73	(1)
References	73	(2)
Periglacial Geomorphology	75	(18)
Else Kolstrup
Introduction	75	(1)
Terminology	76	(1)
Periglacial Areas	77	(1)
Basic Processes and their Prerequisites	78	(1)
Vegetation	79	(2)
Climate and Stratigraphic Background	81	(1)
Landforms, Processes, and Climate	82	(7)
Landforms Dependent on Permafrost	82	(1)
Ice and Sand Wedges	82	(2)
Frost Mounds	84	(1)
Thermokarst	85	(1)
Landforms Related to the Active Layer and Seasonally Frozen Ground	85	(1)
Slopes, Mass-Related Processes	85	(1)
Slopes and Surface Runoff	86	(1)
Valleys and Drainage	87	(1)
Valleys of Mixed Origin	87	(1)
Aeolian Landforms and Processes	88	(1)
Present and Former Periglacial Processes and Landscapes: A Discussion	89	(1)
Concluding Remarks	90	(1)
References	90	(3)
River Environments, Climate Change, and Human Impact	93	(24)
Eduard Koster
Introduction	93	(1)
Development of the Major Drainage Systems	93	(7)
Drainage to the North Sea and the English Channel	96	(3)
Drainage to the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea	99	(1)
Terrace Chronology and Climate	100	(3)
Factors Influencing Palaeogeographic Evolution	103	(5)
Man-Made Changes	108	(4)
Climate Change and Flood Control	112	(1)
River Conservation and Rehabilitation	113	(1)
References	114	(3)
Marine and Coastal Environments	117	(22)
Aart Kroon
Introduction	117	(1)
Geographical Setting of Western European Shores	118	(1)
Geology	119	(3)
Deposits	119	(2)
Lithology: Sinks and Sources	121	(1)
Holocene Evolution and Relative Sea-Level Rise	121	(1)
Coastal Processes	122	(5)
Climatic Factors	122	(1)
Oceanic Factors	122	(1)
Hydrologic Factors	123	(1)
Sediment Transport	123	(1)
Coastal Geomorphology	124	(1)
Processes and Geomorphology of Estuaries and Tidal Basins	125	(2)
Coastal Environments	127	(8)
The French Atlantic Coast	127	(2)
The Western Channel Coast and Brittany, Including the Vendee	129	(1)
The Eastern Channel Coast: Normandy and Northern France	130	(1)
The Southern North Sea Coast: Belgium, Zeeland, and Holland	130	(2)
The Wadden Sea Coast	132	(2)
The Danish North Sea Coast	134	(1)
Concluding Remarks	135	(1)
References	136	(3)
Aeolian Environments	139	(22)
Eduard Koster
Introduction	139	(1)
The European `Sand Belt', Dune Fields, and Sand Sheets	139	(12)
Inland and River Dunes	141	(2)
Cover Sands	143	(2)
Drift Sands	145	(3)
Loess	148	(1)
Coastal Dune Systems	149	(2)
Sediment Attributes	151	(1)
Palaeoenvironmental Significance	152	(1)
Geochronology	153	(2)
Dune Conservation and Management	155	(2)
References	157	(4)
Peatlands, Past and Present	161	(22)
Eduard Koster
Tim Favier
Introduction	161	(1)
Peatland Terminology	161	(1)
Distribution of Peatlands	162	(3)
Distribution of Peatlands per Country	163	(2)
Processes of Peat Formation	165	(3)
Mire Flora and Related Peat Types	165	(2)
Paludification and Terrestrialization	167	(1)
Peat Accumulation Rates	168	(1)
Classification of Mires and Peat Deposits	168	(2)
Ecological Classification	169	(1)
Geogenetic Classification	169	(1)
Hydrogenetic Classification	169	(1)
Hydrogeomorphic Classification	170	(1)
Peatland Cultivation and Exploitation	170	(5)
Cultivation of Natural Mires: Draining, Reclaiming, and Colonizing	170	(3)
Digging and Dredging of Peat for Fuel	173	(2)
Digging of Peat for Salt-Making	175	(1)
Excavation of Peat for Fertilizer	175	(1)
Conservation of the Remaining Mires	175	(1)
Recovery and Restoration	176	(1)
Peatlands as Palaeoecological Archives	176	(3)
Pollen and Spores	176	(2)
Humification Horizons	178	(1)
Wiggle-Match Dating	178	(1)
Mire Corpses	178	(1)
Peatlands and the Global Carbon Cycle	179	(2)
References	181	(2)
II. Regional Environments	183	(104)
Danish--German--Dutch Wadden Environments	185	(22)
Jacobus Hofstede
Introduction	185	(1)
Regional Description	185	(2)
Geomorphology of the Wadden Sea	187	(9)
Origin and Holocene Evolution	189	(1)
The Driving Forces	190	(1)
Meteorological Forces	191	(1)
Astronomical Forces	191	(1)
Artificial Forces	191	(1)
Structure and Functions	191	(5)
Future Developments in the Wadden Sea	196	(6)
Morphological Consequences of Changes in Water Levels and Tidal Range	196	(4)
Morphological Consequences of Changes in Storminess and Storm Surges	200	(1)
Effects of Hydrological Changes on the Biology	201	(1)
Synthesis	201	(1)
Human Activity in the Wadden Sea	202	(1)
References	203	(4)
German Uplands and Alpine Foreland	207	(24)
Eduard Koster
The Major Landform Regions of Germany	207	(3)
Long-Term Geotectonic Evolution	210	(3)
Variscan Orogeny	210	(1)
Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Sedimentary Sequence	210	(2)
Alpine Orogeny	212	(1)
Tectonic Uplifting and Graben Formation	212	(1)
Volcanic Activity and Landforms	212	(1)
Geomorphological Evolution	213	(6)
Karst Phenomena	213	(2)
Planation Surfaces	215	(1)
Quaternary Surficial Deposits and Landforms	216	(1)
Alpine Glaciations	216	(3)
Local Glaciations	219	(1)
Holocene Landscape Development and Human Impact	219	(1)
Regional Patterns	220	(8)
Central German Uplands	220	(1)
Rheinisches Schiefergebirge	220	(1)
Saar-Nahe Upland	221	(1)
Harz	221	(1)
Thuringer Wald, Erzgebirge, Bayerischer Wald, and Bohmer Wald	222	(1)
Lower Saxonian and Hessian Uplands	222	(1)
South German Scarplands and Upper Rhine Graben	223	(1)
Odenwald and Spessart	223	(1)
Schwarzwald (and Vosges)	224	(1)
Upper Rhine Graben	224	(2)
South-West German Cuesta Landscape	226	(1)
Schwabische and Frankische Alb	226	(1)
Alpine Foreland	227	(1)
German Alps	228	(1)
References	228	(3)
French and Belgian Uplands	231	(20)
Bernard Etlicher
Long-Term Evolution: Tertiary and Quaternary	231	(5)
Hercynian Basement and Post-Hercynian Peneplain Evolution	231	(2)
The Main Early Tertiary Erosion Event	233	(1)
Graben, Tectonic Rifting (Eocene to Early Miocene)	233	(2)
Tectonic Uplifting (Mio-Pliocene)	235	(1)
Volcanic Activity and Landforms	236	(1)
Distribution of Surficial Deposits and Landforms	236	(6)
Glaciation and Glacial Deposits	236	(2)
Nivation Landforms and Periglacial Deposits	238	(1)
Nivation	238	(1)
Slope Deposits	238	(2)
Anthropogenic Erosion, Soils, and Peat Bogs	240	(1)
Conclusion: A Model for Altitudinal Zonation of Landforms and Deposits	241	(1)
Regional Patterns	242	(6)
Ardennes	242	(2)
Vosges	244	(1)
Massif Central	245	(1)
Limousin: Plateaux and Basins: Differential Erosion	245	(1)
Auvergne: Volcanic Landforms and Glaciation	246	(1)
Cevennes, Vivarais, Lyonnais: `Serres', Dissection, Periglacial Deposits	247	(1)
References	248	(3)
The Parisian Basin	251	(16)
Yvette Dewolf
Charles Pomerol
Introduction	251	(1)
Origin and Geological Evolution	251	(4)
Geomorphological Evolution	255	(9)
Structural Geomorphology	255	(1)
Eastern Geotype	255	(1)
Southern Geotype	256	(1)
Western Geotype	256	(1)
Northern Geotype	256	(1)
Central Geotype	257	(1)
Palaeosurfaces and Related Surficial Formations	257	(1)
The High Surface	257	(2)
Fossilized Surfaces, Exhumed Surfaces	259	(1)
Evolution of the Hydrographic Network	260	(1)
The River Loire	260	(1)
The River Seine	261	(1)
Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe Rivers	262	(1)
The Inshore Rivers of the English Channel	262	(1)
Valley Formation and Quaternary Surficial Deposits	263	(1)
The Shaping of Slopes	263	(1)
Periglacial Surficial Formations	263	(1)
General Conclusions	264	(1)
References	264	(3)
French Alps and Alpine Forelands	267	(20)
Yvonne Battiau-Queney
Introduction	267	(1)
Principal Geographical Features	267	(3)
Climate	267	(1)
Vegetation	267	(3)
A High Relief	270	(1)
An Extensively Glaciated Chain during the Pleistocene	270	(1)
Geological Formation	270	(1)
Present Geological and Topographic Arrangement	271	(5)
The French Alpine Forelands	271	(2)
The Prealps	273	(1)
The Alpine Trough (Sillon Alpin)	274	(1)
The External Crystalline Massifs	274	(1)
The Intra-Alpine Zone	274	(2)
Structural Landforms	276	(2)
Lithological and Tectonical Control	276	(1)
Karst Features	277	(1)
Glaciations and Glacial Landforms	278	(4)
Chronology	278	(2)
Mode of Glaciation	280	(1)
Glacial Landscapes	281	(1)
Effects of Glaciation on the Cave-System and Karst Development	281	(1)
Rock Glaciers	282	(1)
Natural Hazards	282	(3)
Earthquake Hazards	282	(1)
Hazards Related to Glaciers	282	(1)
Hazards Related to Snow Avalanches	283	(1)
Mass-Movement Hazards	283	(1)
Stream-Flood Hazards	284	(1)
Man-Induced Hazards	284	(1)
Alpine Morphogenic Systems	285	(1)
Acknowledgements	285	(1)
References	285	(2)
III. Environment and Human Impact	287	(140)
Climate: Mean State, Variability, and Change	289	(20)
Introduction	289	(1)
Mean State of Present-Day Climate	289	(8)
Main Features	289	(3)
Causes	292	(3)
Regional and Local Characteristics	295	(1)
Temperature	295	(1)
Precipitation	296	(1)
Sunshine	297	(1)
Climate Variability	297	(5)
Observed Climate Variability	297	(2)
Early European Climate	299	(1)
North Atlantic Oscillation	300	(2)
Man-Made Climate Change	302	(4)
Physical Aspects of Global Warming	303	(1)
Recent Changes of Climate	304	(1)
Future Climate	305	(1)
Appendix	306	(1)
References	307	(2)
Weathering and (Holocene) Soil Formation	309	(22)
Jan Sevink
Otto Spaargaren
Introduction	309	(1)
General Trends in Soil Genesis in Western Europe	309	(2)
Dominant Soil-Forming Processes	311	(10)
Weathering	311	(2)
Organic Matter Accumulation	313	(1)
Bioturbation	314	(1)
Hydromorphism: Gley, Pseudogley, and Stagnogley	315	(2)
Clay Translocation or Lessivage	317	(1)
Podzolization	318	(1)
Less Frequent Processes	319	(1)
Salinization	319	(1)
Soil Ripening	320	(1)
Melanization	320	(1)
Soil-Forming Processes in High-Altitude Mountains	320	(1)
Soil Classifications in Western Europe	321	(4)
National Soil Classification Systems	321	(1)
France	321	(1)
Germany	322	(1)
Belgium	322	(1)
Denmark	322	(1)
The Netherlands	322	(1)
Soil Distribution in Western Europe	322	(3)
Anthropogenic Impacts	325	(3)
Pre-Industrial Anthropogenic Impacts	325	(1)
Recent Anthropogenic Impacts	325	(3)
References	328	(3)
Forests and Forest Environments	331	(22)
Josef Fanta
Introduction	331	(1)
Topography and Climate	331	(1)
Phytogeographical Division	332	(7)
Horizontal Division	332	(1)
The Atlantic Province	332	(1)
The Subatlantic Province	333	(3)
The Central European Province	336	(1)
The West Sub-Mediterranean Province	337	(1)
The Alpic/Alpine Region	337	(1)
The Altitudinal Zonation	337	(2)
Postglacial Forest History	339	(1)
Species Ecology	340	(2)
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea	340	(1)
Fagus sylvatica	341	(1)
Betula pendula and Betula pubescens	341	(1)
Abies alba	342	(1)
Man and Forest Development	342	(3)
Deforestation and Forest Fragmentation	342	(1)
Woodland Pasture and Pannage	343	(1)
Fuelwood, Charcoal, Timber, and Other Wood Products	344	(1)
Coppice Management	345	(1)
Ecological Characteristics of Main Forest Types	345	(3)
Distribution and Ecological Properties of Trees	346	(1)
Most Important Woodlands: Beechwoods and Mixed Oakwoods	346	(1)
Beechwoods	346	(1)
Oakwoods	346	(2)
Organized Forestry	348	(3)
Commercial Forestry	349	(1)
Problems of Contemporary Forests and Forestry	349	(2)
Multifunctional Forestry	351	(1)
References	351	(2)
Geomorphic Hazards and Natural Risks	353	(26)
Olivier Maquaire
Introduction	353	(1)
General Concepts	353	(2)
Natural Disaster and Natural Risk	355	(1)
Hazard	355	(1)
Vulnerability	355	(1)
Inundations: Flood Hazards and Their Management	355	(5)
A Typology and Distribution of Flood Hazards	356	(1)
Extensive Floods, More or Less Cyclic	356	(1)
Snowmelt Floods	357	(1)
Flash Floods	357	(1)
Flooding Associated with Cyclonic Storms	358	(1)
Flood Risk Assessment and Reduction	358	(2)
Earthquakes in Western Europe---a Moderate Seismic Zone	360	(4)
General Characteristics	360	(1)
Seismic Activity in Historical Times and Geographic Distribution	360	(2)
Evaluation and Reduction of Seismic Hazard	362	(2)
Mass Movements	364	(7)
Types of Mass Movement	364	(2)
Causes of Triggering or Reactivation	366	(2)
Distribution of Mass Movements	368	(1)
Characterization of Hazard: Prevention, Prevision, and Protection	369	(2)
Avalanches	371	(3)
Characteristics	371	(1)
Forecasting and Prevention	372	(2)
Indemnity and Prevention: Society's Two Reactions to Risks	374	(1)
Indemnity	374	(1)
The Prevention of Natural Risks	375	(1)
Conclusion	375	(1)
Acknowledgements	376	(1)
References	376	(3)
Air, Water, and Soil Pollution	379	(18)
Andrew Farmer
Introduction	379	(1)
Air Pollution	379	(7)
Introduction	379	(1)
Ammonia	379	(1)
Nitrogen Oxides	380	(1)
Ozone	381	(1)
Particulates	382	(1)
Sulphur Dioxide	382	(1)
Trends in Emissions	382	(1)
Air Pollution Impacts	383	(1)
Ambient Air Quality	383	(1)
Deposited Air Pollutants	384	(1)
Policy Responses	385	(1)
Water Pollution	386	(7)
Introduction	386	(1)
Point Source Pollution	387	(1)
Industrial Sources	387	(1)
Domestic Wastewater	387	(1)
Agricultural Diffuse Pollution	388	(1)
Denmark	388	(1)
France	388	(1)
Germany	389	(1)
The Netherlands	389	(1)
Case Study: The River Rhine	389	(1)
Accident Management and Industrial Pollution Reduction	390	(1)
Reviving Salmon Populations	390	(1)
Nutrient Discharges into the Rhine	391	(1)
Phosphorus Sources	391	(1)
Nitrogen Sources	391	(1)
Nutrient Concentrations in the Rhine	391	(2)
Achievements	393	(1)
Conclusions	393	(1)
Soil Pollution	393	(2)
Contamination	393	(1)
Diffuse Pollution of Soils	394	(1)
References	395	(2)
Urbanization, Industrialization, and Mining	397	(14)
Ed De Mulder
Chris Bremmer
Introduction	397	(1)
Facts and Figures	397	(2)
Urbanization	397	(1)
Industrialization	398	(1)
Mining	399	(1)
Impact on the Natural Environment	399	(2)
Assets and Threats of the Subsurface to the Urban Society	401	(6)
Asset: Urban Soils	401	(1)
Asset: Urban Groundwater	402	(1)
Asset: Mineral Resources	403	(1)
Asset: Underground Space	403	(1)
Threat: Natural and Man-Induced Hazards	404	(1)
Man-Induced Subsidence	405	(1)
Contaminated Land	406	(1)
Rising Groundwater Tables	406	(1)
Waste Disposal	406	(1)
Urban Environmental Geo-indicators	407	(1)
Subsurface Geo-information	407	(1)
Concluding Remarks	408	(1)
References	409	(2)
Geoconservation	411	(16)
Gerard Gonggrijp†
Introduction	411	(1)
Conservation in the Past	412	(2)
Threats	414	(2)
Agriculture, Cattle Breeding, and Forestry	415	(1)
Water Management and Coastal Protection	415	(1)
Extraction of Mineral Resources	416	(1)
Urban and Infrastructural Expansion	416	(1)
Recreation and Recreational Facilities	416	(1)
Motivation for Protection	416	(3)
Scientific Motives	418	(1)
Educational Motives	418	(1)
Site Selection	419	(3)
Classification	420	(1)
Criteria	421	(1)
Geoconservation Policy, Strategy, and Protection	422	(1)
Management and Renaturation	423	(1)
Design and Execution	423	(1)
Management and Monitoring	423	(1)
Fossil Geological Landscapes	424	(1)
Fossilized Geological Landscapes	424	(1)
Active Geological Landscapes	424	(1)
`Exploitation Landscapes'	424	(1)
Final Remarks	424	(1)
References	424	(3)
Subject Index	427