Physical Geology, Cliffs Notes

by Crawford, Mark J.

• ISBN13: 9780822053354
• ISBN10: 0822053357
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1998-06-06
• Publisher: Cliffs Notes

Summary

CliffsQuickReview course guides cover the essentials of your toughest classes. Get a firm grip on core concepts and key material, and test your newfound knowledge with review questions. Whether you're new to rocks and minerals or just brushing up on a favorite old subject, CliffsQuickReview Physical Geology can help. This guide not only helps you understand how glaciation, running water, weathering, and erosion have formed the landscapes we see today, but as you work your way through this guide, you'll find out about The earth's components Geologic structures Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks CliffsQuickReview Physical Geology is an invaluable reference for those who want to understand complex processes deep inside the earth like plate tectonics, volcanic activity, and mountain-building. Here are just a few of the things you'll learn about: The earth's origin Shorelines Deserts and winds The ocean floor Earthquakes With titles available for all the most popular high school and college courses, CliffsQuickReview guides are a comprehensive resource that can help you get the best possible grades.

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(6)
Historical Notes	1	(1)
The Earth's Origin	2	(1)
The Earth's Structure	2	(3)
The Earth's Exterior	5	(1)
Geologic Time	6	(1)
The Earth Today	6	(1)
The Earth's Components	7	(4)
Chemical Composition	7	(1)
Minerals and Rocks	7	(1)
Mineral Properties	8	(1)
Hardness	8	(1)
Color	9	(1)
Luster	9	(1)
Crystal form	9	(1)
Cleavage	9	(1)
Other properties	9	(1)
The Rock Cycle	9	(2)
Igneous Rocks	11	(12)
Magmatic Differentiation	11	(1)
The discontinuous branch	11	(1)
The continuous branch	11	(1)
Volcanoes and Lavas	12	(2)
Craters and calderas	12	(1)
Types of volcanoes	13	(1)
Volcanic domes	13	(1)
Lava floods	14	(1)
Extrusive Rock Types	14	(1)
Basalt, andesite, and rhyolite	14	(1)
Mafic, felsic, and intermediate extrusive rocks	15	(1)
Ultramafic extrusive rocks	15	(1)
Rock Textures	15	(2)
Intrusive Rock Types	17	(2)
Plutonic rocks	18	(1)
Mafic, felsic, and intermediate intrusive rocks	18	(1)
Ultramafic intrusive rocks	18	(1)
Intrusive Structures	19	(1)
Dikes	19	(1)
Sills	19	(1)
Laccoliths	19	(1)
Volcanic necks	19	(1)
Plutons	19	(1)
How Different Magmas Form	20	(1)
Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics	21	(2)
Sedimentary Rocks	23	(8)
How Sedimentary Rocks Form	23	(1)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks	24	(1)
Coarse-grained rocks	25	(1)
Finer-grained rocks	25	(1)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	25	(2)
Limestones	25	(1)
Dolomites	26	(1)
Cherts	26	(1)
Evaporites	26	(1)
Organic Sedimentary Rocks	27	(1)
Sedimentary Features	27	(1)
Bedding	27	(1)
Fossils	28	(1)
Desiccation cracks and ripple marks	28	(1)
Sedimentary Environments	28	(3)
Metamorphic Rocks	31	(8)
Factors Controlling Metamorphism	31	(3)
Temperature and pressure	31	(1)
Water	32	(1)
Geostatic pressure	32	(1)
Differential stress	32	(1)
Compressive stress	33	(1)
Shearing	33	(1)
Foliation	33	(1)
Types of Metamorphism	34	(2)
Regional metamorphism	34	(1)
Metamorphic grades	34	(1)
Contact metamorphism	35	(1)
Metamorphic Rock Types	36	(1)
Foliated metamorphic rocks	36	(1)
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks	36	(1)
Hydrothermal Rocks	37	(1)
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics	38	(1)
Geologic Structures	39	(14)
Tectonic Forces	39	(1)
Stresses	39	(1)
Strains	40	(1)
Interpreting Structures	40	(1)
Mapping in the Field	41	(2)
Folding	43	(3)
Anticlines and synclines	43	(2)
Plunging folds	45	(1)
Structural domes and basins	45	(1)
Open, isoclinal, overturned, and recumbent folds	45	(1)
Fracturing	46	(3)
Faults	47	(1)
Fault movements	47	(2)
Joints	49	(1)
Unconformities	49	(4)
Disconformities	50	(1)
Nonconformities	50	(1)
Angular unconformities	51	(2)
Weathering and Erosion	53	(8)
Weathering	53	(1)
Processes of Mechanical Weathering	54	(1)
Ice	54	(1)
Exfoliation	54	(1)
Friction and impact	54	(1)
Other processes	55	(1)
Processes of Chemical Weathering	55	(2)
Water	56	(1)
Acids	56	(1)
Oxygen	56	(1)
Soil	57	(4)
Residual soil and transported soil	57	(1)
Soil horizons	58	(1)
Soil types	59	(2)
Mass Wasting	61	(6)
Mass-Wasting Controls	61	(2)
Angle of repose	62	(1)
Gravity and friction	62	(1)
The effects of water	63	(1)
Types of Mass Wasting	63	(2)
Rockfalls and rockslides	63	(1)
Debris flows	63	(1)
Creep	64	(1)
Slump	65	(1)
Prevention of Mass Wasting	65	(2)
Running Water	67	(14)
Types of Water Flow	67	(1)
Stream Dynamics	68	(1)
Stream gradient	68	(1)
Channel shape and texture	68	(1)
Stream velocity	69	(1)
Stream discharge	69	(1)
Stream Erosion	69	(2)
Hydraulic action	70	(1)
Abrasion	70	(1)
Solution	70	(1)
Sediment Load	71	(1)
Dissolved load	71	(1)
Suspended load	71	(1)
Bed load	71	(1)
Capacity and competence	71	(1)
Stream Deposition	72	(3)
Bars	72	(1)
Floodplains	72	(1)
Alluvial fans	73	(1)
Deltas	73	(1)
Braided streams	73	(1)
Meanders and oxbow lakes	74	(1)
Stream Valleys	75	(3)
Downcutting	75	(1)
Ungraded and graded streams	76	(1)
Headward and lateral erosion	77	(1)
Stream terraces	78	(1)
Incised meanders	78	(1)
Regional Erosion	78	(3)
Slope erosion	78	(1)
Drainage patterns	79	(2)
Glaciers and Glaciation	81	(12)
Types of Glaciers	82	(1)
How Glaciers Develop	83	(1)
Snow into ice	83	(1)
Wasting and calving	83	(1)
Budget	83	(1)
Zone of accumulation and zone of wastage	84	(1)
The terminus	84	(1)
Glacier Movement	84	(2)
Movement of ice sheets	84	(1)
Movement of valley glaciers	85	(1)
Basal sliding and plastic flow	85	(1)
Glacial Erosion	86	(1)
Glacial Landforms	86	(1)
Glacial Deposits	87	(3)
Load	87	(1)
Features left by valley glaciers and ice sheets	87	(3)
Glaciers in the Past	90	(1)
North American Glaciation	91	(2)
Groundwater	93	(10)
Porosity	93	(1)
Permeability	94	(1)
The Water Table	94	(2)
The saturated zone	94	(1)
The unsaturated zone	94	(1)
Perched water tables	95	(1)
Migration of groundwater	95	(1)
Streams and Springs	96	(3)
Gaining streams	96	(1)
Losing streams	97	(1)
Springs	97	(1)
Aquifers	97	(1)
Wells	98	(1)
Effects of Groundwater Flow	99	(1)
Groundwater Pollution	100	(1)
Sources of groundwater pollution	100	(1)
Contamination identification and cleanup	100	(1)
Geothermal Energy	101	(2)
Hot springs and geysers	101	(1)
The use of geothermal energy	102	(1)
The Shorelines	103	(8)
Waves	103	(2)
Wave height	103	(1)
Wavelength	104	(1)
Wave movement	104	(1)
Longshore currents and rip currents	105	(1)
Beaches	105	(2)
Beach features	105	(1)
Beach deposition	106	(1)
Beach composition	106	(1)
Seasonal changes	107	(1)
Beach engineering	107	(1)
Shoreline Features	107	(3)
Tides	110	(1)
Deserts and Winds	111	(6)
Distribution and Causes of Deserts	111	(1)
Desert Features	112	(1)
Streams	112	(1)
Flash floods	112	(1)
Basin and Range topography	112	(1)
Plateaus, mesas, and buttes	113	(1)
The Effects of Wind	113	(4)
Bed load and suspended load	113	(1)
Wind velocity	114	(1)
Dust storms	114	(1)
Deflation	114	(1)
Sand dunes	115	(2)
Earthquakes	117	(12)
How Earthquakes Form	117	(1)
Seismic Waves	118	(2)
Body waves	118	(1)
Surface waves	119	(1)
Monitoring Earthquakes	120	(2)
Seismometers	120	(1)
Depth of focus	120	(1)
Travel-time curves	120	(1)
First-motion studies	121	(1)
Intensity	121	(1)
Magnitude	122	(1)
Effects of Earthquakes	122	(1)
Structural damage and fire	122	(1)
Mass-wasting events	123	(1)
Seismic sea waves	123	(1)
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics	123	(3)
Earthquake belts and distribution	123	(1)
Plate boundaries and associated earthquakes	124	(2)
Control and Prediction	126	(3)
Monitoring	126	(1)
Using historical data	126	(1)
Reducing built-up strain	127	(2)
Inside the Earth	129	(12)
Methods of Detection	129	(1)
Seismic refraction	129	(1)
Seismic reflection	130	(1)
The Structure of the Earth	130	(1)
The Crust	131	(1)
Crust composition	131	(1)
Crust thickness and density	131	(1)
The Mohorovicic discontinuity	131	(1)
The Mantle	131	(2)
The upper and lower mantle	131	(1)
The lithosphere	132	(1)
The asthenosphere	132	(1)
Other boundaries	132	(1)
Isostatic Equilibrium	133	(1)
The Core	134	(3)
Shadow zones	134	(2)
Other data	136	(1)
Magnetic Fields	137	(2)
The magnetic field and the poles	137	(1)
Magnetic anomalies	137	(1)
Polarity reversals	138	(1)
Gravity	139	(1)
Geothermal Gradients	140	(1)
The Ocean Floor	141	(12)
Investigative Technologies	141	(1)
Continental Margins	142	(2)
Active and passive margins	142	(1)
Continental shelves	143	(1)
Continental slopes	143	(1)
Submarine canyons	143	(1)
Turbidity currents	144	(1)
Ocean Floor Sediments	144	(1)
Active Continental Margins	145	(1)
Passive Continental Margins	145	(1)
Reefs	146	(2)
Midoceanic Ridges	148	(3)
Oceanic Crust	151	(2)
Plate Tectonics	153	(18)
Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics	153	(3)
Continental drift	153	(2)
The work of Alfred Wegener	155	(1)
Paleomagnetic Evidence for Plate Tectonics	156	(1)
Sea Floor Evidence for Plate Tectonics	156	(5)
Sea floor spreading	157	(1)
Magnetic anomalies	158	(1)
Seismic studies	159	(1)
Modern plate tectonic theory	159	(2)
How Plates Move	161	(1)
Types of Plate Boundaries	162	(5)
Convergent boundaries	162	(2)
Divergent boundaries	164	(2)
Transform boundaries	166	(1)
Why Plates Move	167	(1)
Convection currents	167	(1)
Mechanisms of plate movement and subduction	167	(1)
Mantle Plumes	168	(1)
Pangaea	169	(2)
Mountain-Building	171	(8)
Features of Mountain Belts	172	(2)
Cratons	172	(1)
Rock types	173	(1)
Types of Mountains	174	(1)
How Mountains Form	175	(2)
Accumulation	175	(1)
Mountain-building convergence	176	(1)
Postconvergence mountain-building	177	(1)
How Continents Form	177	(2)
Accretions of terranes	177	(2)
Geologic Time	179	(12)
Relative Time	179	(2)
Basic principles	179	(2)
Geologic Correlations	181	(2)
Physical continuity	181	(1)
The fossil record	182	(1)
The geologic time scale	182	(1)
Absolute Age	183	(4)
A Summary of Earth's History	187	(4)
The Precambrian	187	(1)
The Paleozoic era	187	(1)
The Mesozoic era	188	(1)
The Cenozoic era	189	(2)
Earth Resources We Depend on	191	(10)
Resources and Reserves	191	(1)
Metallic Deposits	192	(2)
Energy Resources	194	(4)
Fossil fuels	194	(3)
Uranium and geothermal sources	197	(1)
Renewable resources	197	(1)
Nonmetallic Resources	198	(1)
Recycling and Conservation	199	(2)
Our Solar System	201	(4)
Mercury	201	(1)
Venus	202	(1)
Earth's Moon	202	(1)
Mars	203	(1)
Jupiter and Saturn	204	(1)
Glossary	205