Physical Geology : Earth Revealed

by Carlson, Diane H.; Plummer, Charles C.; McGeary, David

• ISBN13: 9780073256481
• ISBN10: 007325648X
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-09-12
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math

Summary

Physical Geology: Earth Revealedis appropriate for introductory physical geology classes. This text, which includes the same information as the market-leadingPhysical Geology - 11th edition, by Plummer/Carlson, is for the instructor who prefers to cover plate tectonics early in the course.The seventh edition has been updated to include the most current information from the various sub-disciplines that comprise physical geology. The book's purpose is to clearly present geologic processes so that students can understand the logic of scientific methods. This text features an outstanding art program and a proven, accessible writing style.This text continues to be used as the official textbook to accompany the Annenberg CPB distributed telecourse for physical geology.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts	2	(26)
Who Needs Geology?	4	(6)
Supplying Things We Need	4	(1)
Protecting the Environment	5	(1)
Avoiding Geologic Hazards	5	(4)
Understanding Our Surroundings	9	(1)
Earth Systems	10	(1)
An Overview of Physical Geology---Important Concepts	11	(13)
Internal Processes: How the Earth's Internal Heat Engine Works	13	(1)
Earth's Interior	13	(1)
The Theory of Plate Tectonics	13	(1)
Divergent Boundaries	14	(1)
Convergent Boundaries	15	(4)
Transform Boundaries	19	(2)
Surficial Processes: The Earth's External Heat Engine	21	(3)
Geologic Time	24	(4)
Summary	25	(3)
Earth's Interior and Geophysical Properties	28	(26)
Introduction	30	(1)
Evidence from Seismic Waves	30	(3)
Earth's Internal Structure	33	(7)
The Crust	33	(1)
The Mantle	34	(2)
The Core	36	(4)
Isostasy	40	(2)
Gravity Measurements	42	(2)
Earth's Magnetic Field	44	(4)
Magnetic Reversals	44	(3)
Magnetic Anomalies	47	(1)
Heat within the Earth	48	(6)
Geothermal Gradient	48	(1)
Heat Flow	49	(1)
Summary	50	(4)
The Sea Floor	54	(24)
Origin of the Ocean	56	(1)
Methods of Studying the Sea Floor	56	(2)
Features of the Sea Floor	58	(1)
Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes	58	(2)
Submarine Canyons	60	(2)
Turbidity Currents	61	(1)
Passive Continental Margins	62	(2)
The Continental Rise	63	(1)
Abyssal Plains	63	(1)
Active Continental Margins	64	(1)
Oceanic Trenches	64	(1)
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge	65	(2)
Geologic Activity on the Ridge	65	(2)
Biologic Activity on the Ridge	67	(1)
Fracture Zones	67	(1)
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges	67	(2)
Reefs	69	(2)
Sediments of the Sea Floor	71	(1)
Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites	71	(3)
The Age of the Sea Floor	74	(1)
The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics	74	(4)
Summary	74	(4)
Plate Tectonics	78	(37)
The Early Case for Continental Drift	81	(3)
Skepticism about Continental Drift	83	(1)
Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift	84	(2)
Recent Evidence for Continental Drift	85	(1)
History of Continental Positions	86	(1)
Seafloor Spreading	86	(2)
Hess's Driving Force	86	(1)
Explanations	87	(1)
Plates and Plate Motion	88	(1)
How Do We Know that Plates Move?	88	(4)
Marine Magnetic Anomalies	88	(3)
Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults	91	(1)
Measuring Plate Motion Directly	92	(1)
Divergent Plate Boundaries	92	(5)
Transform Boundaries	97	(1)
Convergent Plate Boundaries	97	(6)
Ocean-Ocean Convergence	97	(2)
Ocean-Continent Convergence	99	(1)
Continent-Continent Convergence	100	(3)
The Motion of Plate Boundaries	103	(1)
Plate Size	103	(1)
The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics	104	(1)
What Causes Plate Motions?	104	(6)
Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots	106	(4)
A Final Note	110	(5)
Summary	110	(5)
Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust	115	(23)
Introduction	116	(3)
Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts	119	(5)
Size and Alignment	119	(1)
Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents	119	(1)
Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers	120	(1)
Patterns of Folding and Faulting	121	(1)
Metamorphism and Plutonism	121	(1)
Normal Faulting	122	(1)
Thickness and Density of Rocks	123	(1)
Features of Active Mountain Ranges	124	(1)
Evolution of Mountain Belts	124	(9)
Orogenies and Plate Convergence	124	(5)
Post-Orogenic Uplift and Block-Faulting	129	(4)
The Growth of Continents	133	(5)
Displaced Terranes	133	(2)
Summary	135	(3)
Geologic Structures	138	(24)
Tectonic Forces at Work	140	(2)
Stress and Strain in the Earth's Lithosphere	140	(1)
How Do Rocks Behave When Stressed?	141	(1)
Structures as a Record of the Geologic Past	142	(2)
Geologic Maps and Field Methods	142	(2)
Folds	144	(5)
Geometry of Folds	145	(2)
Further Description of Folds	147	(2)
Fractures in Rock	149	(13)
Joints	149	(2)
Faults	151	(8)
Summary	159	(3)
Earthquakes	162	(36)
Introduction	164	(2)
Causes of Earthquakes	166	(1)
Seismic Waves	167	(2)
Body Waves	167	(2)
Surface Waves	169	(1)
Locating and Measuring Earthquakes	169	(8)
Determining the Location of an Earthquake	169	(3)
Measuring the Size of an Earthquake	172	(3)
Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States	175	(2)
Effects of Earthquakes	177	(7)
Tsunami	181	(3)
World Distribution of Earthquakes	184	(1)
First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes	184	(1)
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics	184	(5)
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries	186	(3)
Subduction Angle	189	(1)
Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk	189	(9)
Summary	194	(4)
Time and Geology	198	(28)
The Key to the Past	200	(1)
Relative Time	201	(10)
Principles Used to Determine Relative Age	201	(5)
Unconformities	206	(2)
Correlation	208	(3)
The Standard Geologic Time Scale	211	(1)
Numerical Age	211	(7)
Isotopic Dating	212	(5)
Uses of Isotopic Dating	217	(1)
Combining Relative and Numerical Ages	218	(1)
Age of the Earth	219	(7)
Comprehending Geologic Time	220	(2)
Summary	222	(4)
Atoms, Elements, and Minerals	226	(28)
Minerals	228	(2)
Introduction	228	(2)
Atoms and Elements	230	(8)
Ions and Crystalline Structures	231	(4)
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron	235	(2)
Nonsilicate Minerals	237	(1)
Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions	238	(3)
The Physical Properties of Minerals	241	(8)
Color	241	(1)
Streak	241	(1)
Luster	241	(1)
Hardness	242	(1)
External Crystal Form	243	(2)
Cleavage	245	(2)
Fracture	247	(1)
Specific Gravity	247	(1)
Special Properties	248	(1)
Chemical Tests	249	(1)
The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation	249	(5)
Summary	251	(3)
Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks	254	(32)
Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows	256	(1)
Living with Volcanoes	256	(7)
Supernatural Beliefs	256	(3)
The Growth of an Island	259	(1)
Geothermal Energy	259	(1)
Effect on Climate	259	(1)
Volcanic Catastrophes	259	(3)
Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava	262	(1)
Extrusive Rocks and Gases	263	(1)
Scientific Investigation of Volcanism	263	(1)
Gases	263	(1)
Extrusive Rocks	264	(3)
Composition	264	(1)
Extrusive Textures	265	(2)
Types of Volcanoes	267	(9)
Shield Volcanoes	268	(3)
Cinder Cones	271	(1)
Composite Volcanoes	271	(4)
Volcanic Domes	275	(1)
Lava Floods	276	(4)
Submarine Eruptions	280	(6)
Pillow Basalts	280	(2)
Summary	282	(4)
Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks	286	(28)
The Rock Cycle	288	(2)
A Plate Tectonic Example	289	(1)
Igneous Rocks	290	(7)
Igneous Rock Textures	291	(1)
Identification of Igneous Rocks	291	(3)
Varieties of Granite	294	(1)
Chemistry of Igneous Rocks	294	(3)
Intrusive Bodies	297	(2)
Shallow Intrusive Structures	297	(1)
Intrusives that Crystallize at Depth	298	(1)
Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks	299	(1)
How Magma Forms	300	(2)
Heat for Melting Rock	301	(1)
Factors that Control Melting Temperatures	301	(1)
How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve	302	(3)
Sequence of Crystallization and Melting	302	(2)
Differentiation	304	(1)
Partial Melting	304	(1)
Assimilation	305	(1)
Mixing of Magmas	305	(1)
Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics	305	(9)
Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries	305	(1)
Intraplate Igneous Activity	306	(1)
Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries	307	(4)
Summary	311	(3)
Weathering and Soil	314	(22)
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation	316	(1)
Weathering and Earth Systems	316	(1)
Solar System	316	(1)
Atmosphere	316	(1)
Hydrosphere	317	(1)
Biosphere	317	(1)
How Weathering Alters Rocks	317	(1)
Effects of Weathering	318	(1)
Mechanical Weathering	319	(2)
Pressure Release	319	(1)
Frost Action	319	(1)
Other Processes	320	(1)
Chemical Weathering	321	(6)
Role of Oxygen	322	(1)
Role of Acids	322	(1)
Solution Weathering	323	(1)
Chemical Weathering of Feldspar	324	(1)
Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals	325	(1)
Weathering Products	326	(1)
Factors Affecting Weathering	326	(1)
Soil	327	(9)
Soil Horizons	327	(2)
Soil Classification	329	(1)
Residual and Transported Soils	329	(2)
Soils, Parent Material, Time, and Slope	331	(1)
Organic Activity	331	(1)
Soils and Climate	331	(2)
Buried Soils	333	(1)
Summary	333	(3)
Mass Wasting	336	(24)
Introduction to Mass Wasting	338	(1)
Classification of Mass Wasting	339	(3)
Rate of Movement	339	(1)
Type of Material	339	(1)
Type of Movement	339	(3)
Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting	342	(2)
Gravity	342	(1)
Water	343	(1)
Triggering Mechanisms	344	(1)
Common Types of Mass Wasting	344	(9)
Creep	344	(2)
Flow	346	(4)
Rockfalls and Rockslides	350	(3)
Underwater Landslides	353	(1)
Preventing Landslides	354	(6)
Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil	354	(2)
Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways	356	(2)
Summary	358	(2)
Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks	360	(32)
Sediment	363	(4)
Transportation	363	(1)
Deposition	364	(1)
Preservation	365	(1)
Lithification	365	(2)
Types of Sedimentary Rocks	367	(1)
Detrital Rocks	367	(4)
Breccia and Conglomerate	367	(2)
Sandstone	369	(1)
The Fine-Grained Rocks	370	(1)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	371	(5)
Carbonate Rocks	371	(4)
Chert	375	(1)
Evaporites	375	(1)
Organic Sedimentary Rocks	376	(1)
Coal	376	(1)
The Origin of Oil and Gas	376	(1)
Sedimentary Structures	377	(4)
Fossils	381	(1)
Formations	382	(1)
Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks	383	(9)
Source Area	383	(2)
Environment of Deposition	385	(2)
Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks	387	(2)
Summary	389	(3)
Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks	392	(24)
Introduction	394	(1)
Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks	395	(4)
Composition of the Parent Rock	396	(1)
Temperature	396	(1)
Pressure	397	(1)
Fluids	398	(1)
Time	399	(1)
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks	399	(4)
Nonfoliated Rocks	399	(2)
Foliated Rocks	401	(2)
Types of Metamorphism	403	(4)
Contact Metamorphism	403	(1)
Regional Metamorphism	403	(4)
Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism	407	(2)
Foliation and Plate Tectonics	407	(1)
Pressure-Temperature Regimes	407	(2)
Hydrothermal Processes	409	(7)
Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries	410	(1)
Water at Convergent Boundaries	411	(1)
Metasomatism	411	(1)
Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals	412	(2)
Summary	414	(2)
Streams and Floods	416	(36)
Earth Systems---The Hydrologic Cycle	418	(1)
Running Water	419	(1)
Drainage Basins	420	(1)
Drainage Patterns	420	(1)
Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition	421	(3)
Velocity	421	(2)
Gradient	423	(1)
Channel Shape and Roughness	423	(1)
Discharge	423	(1)
Stream Erosion	424	(1)
Stream Transportation of Sediment	425	(2)
Stream Deposition	427	(9)
Bars	427	(3)
Braided Streams	430	(1)
Meandering Streams and Point Bars	430	(1)
Flood Plains	431	(2)
Deltas	433	(2)
Alluvial Fans	435	(1)
Flooding	436	(7)
Urban Flooding	436	(1)
Flash Floods	436	(4)
Controlling Floods	440	(1)
The Great Flood of 1993	440	(3)
Stream Valley Development	443	(2)
Downcutting and Base Level	443	(1)
The Concept of a Graded Stream	444	(1)
Lateral Erosion	445	(1)
Headward Erosion	445	(1)
Stream Terraces	445	(2)
Incised Meanders	447	(5)
Summary	449	(3)
Ground Water	452	(24)
Introduction	454	(1)
Porosity and Permeability	454	(1)
The Water Table	455	(1)
The Movement of Ground Water	456	(2)
Aquifers	458	(1)
Wells	459	(1)
Springs and Streams	460	(3)
Contamination of Ground Water	463	(4)
Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge	467	(1)
Effects of Groundwater Action	467	(4)
Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography	467	(3)
Other Effects	470	(1)
Hot Water Underground	471	(5)
Geothermal Energy	472	(1)
Summary	473	(3)
Deserts and Wind Action	476	(22)
Distribution of Deserts	478	(1)
Some Characteristics of Deserts	479	(3)
Desert Features in the Southwestern United States	482	(4)
Wind Action	486	(12)
Wind Erosion and Transportation	486	(2)
Wind Deposition	488	(7)
Summary	495	(3)
Glaciers and Glaciation	498	(32)
Introduction	500	(1)
Glaciers---Where They Are, How They Form and Move	501	(7)
Distribution of Glaciers	501	(1)
Types of Glaciers	501	(1)
Formation and Growth of Glaciers	501	(3)
Movement of Valley Glaciers	504	(2)
Movement of Ice Sheets	506	(2)
Glacial Erosion	508	(6)
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation	509	(5)
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation	514	(1)
Glacial Deposition	514	(5)
Moraines	515	(3)
Outwash	518	(1)
Glacial Lakes and Varves	519	(1)
The Theory of Glacial Ages	519	(11)
Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America	521	(2)
Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation	523	(3)
Evidence for Older Glaciation	526	(1)
Summary	527	(3)
Waves, Beaches, and Coasts	530	(20)
Introduction	532	(1)
Water Waves	532	(2)
Surf	533	(1)
Near-Shore Circulation	534	(2)
Wave Refraction	534	(1)
Longshore Currents	534	(1)
Rip Currents	534	(2)
Beaches	536	(1)
Longshore Drift of Sediment	537	(3)
Human Interference with Sand Drift	538	(2)
Sources of Sand on Beaches	540	(1)
Coasts and Coastal Features	540	(10)
Erosional Coasts	540	(2)
Depositional Coasts	542	(1)
Drowned Coasts	543	(1)
Uplifted Coasts	544	(1)
The Biosphere and Coasts	545	(3)
Summary	548	(2)
Geologic Resources	550	(32)
Introduction	552	(1)
Energy Resources	552	(17)
Coal	553	(3)
Petroleum and Natural Gas	556	(6)
Coal Bed Methane	562	(1)
Heavy Crude and Oil Sands	562	(2)
Oil Shale	564	(1)
Uranium	565	(1)
Geothermal Power	566	(2)
Renewable Energy Sources	568	(1)
Metallic Resources	569	(3)
Ores Formed by Igneous Processes	569	(2)
Ores Formed by Surface Processes	571	(1)
Mining	572	(4)
Some Important Metals	573	(3)
Nonmetallic Resources	576	(2)
Construction Materials	576	(1)
Fertilizers and Evaporites	577	(1)
Other Nonmetallics	577	(1)
The Human Perspective	578	(4)
Summary	579	(3)
Earth's Companions	582
The Earth in Space	584	(4)
The Sun	584	(1)
The Solar System	585	(1)
The Milky Way and the Universe	586	(2)
Origin of the Planets	588	(3)
The Solar Nebula	588	(2)
Formation of the Planets	590	(1)
Formation of Moons	590	(1)
Final Stages of Planet Formation	590	(1)
Formation of Atmospheres	590	(1)
Other Planetary Systems	591	(1)
Portraits of the Planets	591	(21)
Our Moon	592	(1)
Description of the Moon	592	(3)
Structure of the Moon	595	(1)
Origin and History of the Moon	595	(1)
Mercury	595	(3)
Venus	598	(2)
Mars	600	(5)
Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different?	605	(1)
Jupiter	606	(3)
Saturn	609	(1)
Uranus	610	(1)
Neptune	610	(1)
Pluto	611	(1)
Minor Objects of the Solar System	612	(3)
Meteors and Meteorites	612	(1)
Meteorites	612	(1)
Asteroids	613	(1)
Comets	613	(2)
Giant Impacts	615
Giant Meteor Impacts	615	(1)
Summary	616
Appendix A Identification of Minerals	1	(4)
Appendix B Identification of Rocks	5	(3)
Appendix C The Elements Most Significant to Geology	8	(1)
Appendix D Periodic Table of Elements	9	(1)
Appendix E Selected Conversion Factors	10	(1)
Appendix F Rock Symbols	11	(1)
Appendix G Commonly Used Prefixes, Suffices, and Roots	12
Glossary	1	(1)
Index	1