Physical Geology

by Plummer, Charles C.; McGeary, David; Carlson, Diane H.

• ISBN13: 9780697374042
• ISBN10: 0697374041
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-07-01
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill College

Table of Contents

About the Authors	ii
Preface	x
The Learning System	xii
Introduction to Physical Geology	2	(24)
Who Needs Geology?	4	(7)
Avoiding Geologic Hazards	6	(1)
Supplying Things We Need	7	(1)
Protecting the Environment	8	(3)
Understanding Our Surroundings	11	(1)
An Overview of Physical Geology--Important Concepts	11	(10)
Internal Processes: How the Earth's Internal Heat Engine Works	14	(1)
The Earth's Interior	15	(1)
The Theory of Plate Tectonics	16	(2)
Surficial Processes: The Earth's External Heat Engine	18	(3)
Geologic Time	21	(1)
Summary	22	(1)
Terms to Remember*	22	(1)
Testing Your Knowledge*	23	(1)
Expanding your Knowledge*	24	(1)
Exploring Resources*	24	(1)
Interacting with Journey Through Geology CD-ROM*	25	(1)
Atoms, Elements, and Minerals	26	(26)
Atoms and Elements	28	(3)
Chemical Activity	30	(1)
Ions	30	(1)
Chemical Composition of the Earth's Crust	31	(1)
Crystallinity	32	(5)
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron	33	(4)
Minerals	37	(3)
Crystalline Solids	37	(1)
Natural and Inorganic Substances	37	(1)
Definite Chemical Composition	37	(1)
The Important Minerals	38	(2)
The Physical Properties of Minerals	40	(7)
Color	40	(1)
Streak	40	(1)
Luster	40	(1)
Hardness	40	(1)
External Crystal Form	41	(2)
Cleavage	43	(2)
Fracture	45	(1)
Specific Gravity	45	(1)
Other Properties	46	(1)
Simple Chemical Tests	46	(1)
The Rock Cycle	47	(2)
Summary	49	(3)
Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks	52	(24)
Igneous Rocks	55	(4)
Identification of Igneous Rocks	55	(3)
Varieties of Granite	58	(1)
Chemistry of Igneous Rocks	58	(1)
Intrusive Bodies	59	(4)
Shallow Intrusive Structures	60	(1)
Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth	61	(2)
Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks	63	(1)
How Magma Forms	63	(3)
Heat for Melting Rock	64	(1)
Factors That Control Melting Temperatures	64	(2)
How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve	66	(4)
Differentiation and Bowen's Reaction Theory	66	(2)
Partial Melting	68	(1)
Assimilation	69	(1)
Mixing of Magmas	69	(1)
Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics	70	(3)
Intraplate Igneous Activity	70	(1)
Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries	71	(2)
Summary	73	(3)
Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks	76	(26)
Effects on Humans	78	(5)
The Growth of Hawaii	78	(1)
Geothermal Energy	78	(1)
Effect on Climate	78	(3)
Volcanic Catastrophes	81	(1)
Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava	82	(1)
Extrusive Rocks and Gases	83	(1)
Scientific Investigation of Volcanism	83	(1)
Gases	84	(1)
Extrusive Rocks	84	(3)
Types of Volcanoes	87	(8)
Shield Volcanoes	88	(1)
Cinder Cones	88	(2)
Composite Volcanoes	90	(3)
Volcanic Domes	93	(2)
Lava Floods	95	(1)
Submarine Eruptions	96	(3)
Pillow Basalts	97	(2)
Summary	99	(3)
Weathering and Soil	102	(18)
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation	104	(1)
How Weathering Alters Rocks	104	(1)
Effects of Weathering	104	(1)
Mechanical Weathering	104	(4)
Frost Action	104	(2)
Abrasion	106	(1)
Pressure Release	107	(1)
Chemical Weathering	108	(5)
Role of Oxygen	108	(1)
Role of Acid	109	(1)
Solution Weathering	110	(1)
Chemical Weathering of Feldspar	111	(1)
Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals	112	(1)
Weathering and Climate	113	(1)
Weathering Products	113	(1)
Soil	113	(5)
Soil Horizons	114	(1)
Residual and Transported Soils	114	(1)
Soils, Parent Rock, Time, and Slope	115	(1)
Organic Activity	116	(1)
Soils and Climate	116	(1)
Buried Soils	117	(1)
Summary	118	(2)
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks	120	(30)
Sediment	122	(4)
Transportation	122	(1)
Deposition	123	(1)
Preservation	124	(1)
Lithification	125	(1)
Types of Sedimentary Rocks	126	(1)
Clastic Rocks	126	(4)
Breccia and Conglomerate	126	(1)
Sandstone	127	(1)
The Fine-Grained Rocks	128	(2)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	130	(5)
Carbonate Rocks	130	(3)
Chert	133	(1)
Evaporites	134	(1)
Organic Sedimentary Rocks	135	(1)
Coal	135	(1)
The Origin of Oil and Gas	135	(1)
Sedimentary Structures	135	(4)
Formations	139	(1)
Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks	140	(6)
Source Area	140	(2)
Environment of Deposition	142	(3)
Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks	145	(1)
Summary	146	(4)
Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks	150	(22)
Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks	152	(4)
Composition of the Parent Rock	152	(1)
Temperature	153	(1)
Pressure	153	(2)
Fluids	155	(1)
Time	156	(1)
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks	156	(1)
Types of Metamorphism	156	(6)
Contact Metamorphism	156	(2)
Regional Metamorphism	158	(4)
Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism	162	(1)
Hydrothermal Processes	163	(6)
Hydrothermal Activity at Diverging Plate Boundaries	163	(2)
Metasomatism	165	(1)
Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals	166	(1)
Sources of Water	167	(2)
Summary	169	(3)
Time and Geology	172	(26)
The Key to the Past	174	(1)
Relative Time	174	(9)
Principles Used to Determine Relative Age	174	(5)
Correlation	179	(3)
The Standard Geologic Time Scale	182	(1)
Unconformities	183	(3)
Disconformities	183	(2)
Angular Unconformities	185	(1)
Nonconformities	186	(1)
Absolute Age	186	(4)
Isotopic Dating	186	(3)
Uses of Isotopic Dating	189	(1)
Combining Relative and Absolute Ages	190	(1)
Age of the Earth	191	(4)
Comprehending Geologic Time	191	(4)
Summary	195	(3)
Mass Wasting	198	(22)
Classification of Mass Wasting	200	(3)
Rate of Movement	200	(1)
Type of Material	200	(2)
Type of Movement	202	(1)
Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting	203	(2)
Gravity	204	(1)
Water	204	(1)
Common Types of Mass Wasting	205	(10)
Creep	205	(1)
Debris Flow	206	(6)
Rockfalls and Rockslides	212	(3)
Preventing Landslides	215	(3)
Preventing Mass Wasting of Debris	215	(1)
Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways	216	(2)
Summary	218	(2)
Streams and Floods	220	(38)
The Hydrologic Cycle	222	(1)
Channel Flow and Sheet Flow	222	(2)
Drainage Basins	224	(1)
Drainage Patterns	224	(1)
Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition	225	(3)
Velocity	225	(1)
Gradient	226	(1)
Channel Shape and Roughness	226	(1)
Discharge	227	(1)
Stream Erosion	228	(1)
Stream Transportation of Sediment	229	(1)
Stream Deposition	230	(12)
Bars	230	(1)
Braided Streams	231	(4)
Meandering Streams and Point Bars	235	(2)
Flood Plains	237	(2)
Deltas	239	(2)
Alluvial Fans	241	(1)
Flooding	242	(6)
Urban Flooding	242	(3)
Flash Floods	245	(1)
Controlling Floods	246	(1)
The Great Flood of 1993	247	(1)
Stream Valley Development	248	(4)
Downcutting and Base Level	248	(2)
The Concept of a Graded Stream	250	(1)
Lateral Erosion	251	(1)
Headward Erosion and Stream Piracy	251	(1)
Stream Terraces	252	(1)
Incised Meanders	253	(2)
Superposed Streams	255	(1)
Summary	255	(3)
Ground Water	258	(24)
Porosity and Permeability	260	(1)
The Water Table	260	(2)
The Movement of Ground Water	262	(1)
Aquifers	263	(1)
Wells	264	(2)
Springs and Streams	266	(1)
Pollution of Ground Water	266	(6)
Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge	272	(2)
Effects of Ground-Water Action	274	(3)
Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography	274	(2)
Other Effects	276	(1)
Hot Water Underground	277	(1)
Geothermal Energy	278	(1)
Summary	278	(4)
Glaciers and Glaciation	282	(32)
The Theory of Glacial Ages	284	(1)
Glaciers--Where They Are, How They Form and Move	284	(10)
Distribution of Glaciers	284	(1)
Types of Glaciers	285	(1)
Formation and Growth of Glaciers	285	(3)
Movement of Valley Glaciers	288	(5)
Movement of Ice Sheets	293	(1)
Glacial Erosion	294	(5)
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation	295	(3)
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation	298	(1)
Glacial Deposition	299	(4)
Moraines	300	(2)
Outwash	302	(1)
Glacial Lakes and Varves	303	(1)
Effects of Past Glaciation	303	(8)
The Glacial Ages	303	(2)
Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America	305	(5)
Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation	310	(1)
Evidence for Older Glaciation	310	(1)
Summary	311	(3)
Deserts and Wind Action	314	(22)
Distribution of Deserts	316	(1)
Some Characteristics of Deserts	316	(3)
Desert Features in the Southwestern United States	319	(3)
Wind Action	322	(10)
Wind Erosion and Transportation	324	(3)
Wind Deposition	327	(5)
Summary	332	(4)
Waves, Beaches, and Coasts	336	(20)
Water Waves	338	(2)
Surf	339	(1)
Nearshore Circulation	340	(1)
Wave Refraction	340	(1)
Longshore Currents	340	(1)
Rip Currents	341	(1)
Beaches	341	(1)
Longshore Drift of Sediment	342	(2)
Human Interference with Sand Drift	344	(1)
Sources of Sand on Beaches	344	(1)
Coasts and Coastal Features	344	(9)
Erosional Coasts	345	(3)
Depositional Coasts	348	(1)
Drowned Coasts	349	(3)
Uplifted Coasts	352	(1)
Coasts Shaped by Organisms	352	(1)
Summary	353	(3)
Geologic Structures	356	(26)
Tectonic Forces at Work	358	(3)
Stress and Strain in the Earth's Crust	358	(1)
Behavior of Rocks to Stress and Strain	359	(1)
Present Deformation of the Crust	360	(1)
Structures as a Record of the Geologic Past	361	(2)
Geologic Maps and Field Methods	361	(2)
Folds	363	(4)
Geometry of Folds	363	(3)
Interpreting Folds	366	(1)
Fractures in Rock	367	(12)
Joints	368	(2)
Faults	370	(9)
Summary	379	(3)
Earthquakes	382	(32)
Causes of Earthquakes	384	(2)
Seismic Waves	386	(1)
Body Waves	386	(1)
Surface Waves	386	(1)
Locating and Measuring Earthquakes	386	(9)
Determining the Location of an Earthquake	389	(1)
Measuring the Size of an Earthquake	390	(3)
Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States	393	(2)
Effects of Earthquakes	395	(6)
Tsunamis	399	(2)
World Distribution of Earthquakes	401	(3)
First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes	404	(1)
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics	404	(4)
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries	405	(3)
Subduction Angle	408	(1)
Earthquake Prediction	408	(1)
Earthquake Control	409	(2)
Summary	411	(3)
The Earth's Interior	414	(22)
Evidence from Seismic Waves	416	(1)
The Earth's Internal Structure	417	(6)
The Earth's Crust	418	(1)
The Mantle	418	(2)
The Core	420	(3)
Isostasy	423	(2)
Gravity Measurements	425	(2)
The Earth's Magnetic Field	427	(5)
Magnetic Reversals	428	(1)
Magnetic Anomalies	429	(3)
Heat Within the Earth	432	(1)
Geothermal Gradient	432	(1)
Heat Flow	433	(1)
Summary	433	(3)
The Sea Floor	436	(22)
Origin of the Ocean	438	(1)
Methods of Studying the Sea Floor	439	(1)
Features of the Sea Floor	440	(1)
Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes	440	(2)
Submarine Canyons	442	(1)
Turbidity Currents	443	(1)
Passive Continental Margins	443	(1)
The Continental Rise	443	(1)
Abyssal Plains	444	(1)
Active Continental Margins	444	(1)
Oceanic Trenches	445	(1)
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge	445	(4)
Geologic Activity on the Ridge	446	(1)
Biologic Activity on the Ridge	446	(3)
Fracture Zones	449	(1)
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges	449	(1)
Reefs	450	(2)
Sediments of the Sea Floor	452	(1)
Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites	452	(2)
The Age of the Sea Floor	454	(1)
The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics	455	(1)
Summary	455	(3)
Plate Tectonics	458	(38)
The Early Case for Continental Drift	460	(3)
Skepticism about Continental Drift	462	(1)
Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift	463	(2)
Recent Evidence for Continental Drift	464	(1)
History of Continental Positions	465	(1)
Sea-Floor Spreading	465	(2)
Hess's Driving Force	466	(1)
Explanations	466	(1)
Plates and Plate Motion	467	(1)
How Do We Know That Plates Move?	468	(4)
Marine Magnetic Anomalies	468	(3)
Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults	471	(1)
Measuring Plate Motion Directly	472	(1)
Divergent Plate Boundaries	472	(3)
Transform Boundaries	475	(1)
Convergent Plate Boundaries	476	(5)
Ocean-Ocean Convergence	477	(1)
Ocean-Continent Convergence	478	(2)
Continent-Continent Convergence	480	(1)
Backarc Spreading	481	(1)
The Motion of Plate Boundaries	482	(1)
Plate Size	482	(1)
The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics	482	(6)
What Causes Plate Motions?	483	(3)
Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots	486	(2)
The Relationship Between Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits	488	(4)
A Final Note	492	(1)
Summary	492	(4)
Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust	496	(24)
Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts	499	(6)
Size and Alignment	499	(1)
Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents	499	(2)
Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers	501	(1)
Patterns of Folding and Faulting	502	(2)
Metamorphism and Plutonism	504	(1)
Normal Faulting	504	(1)
Thickness and Density of Rocks	504	(1)
Features of Active Mountain Ranges	505	(1)
The Evolution of a Mountain Belt	505	(9)
The Accumulation Stage	505	(1)
The Orogenic Stage	506	(3)
The Uplift and Block-faulting Stage	509	(5)
The Growth of Continents	514	(4)
Suspect and Exotic Terranes	515	(3)
Summary	518	(2)
Geologic Resources	520	(26)
Types of Resources	522	(1)
Resources and Reserves	523	(1)
Energy Use	523	(1)
Oil and Natural Gas	523	(5)
The Occurrence of Oil and Gas	524	(2)
Recovering the Oil	526	(1)
How Much Oil Do We Have Left?	527	(1)
Heavy Crude and Oil Sands	528	(1)
Oil Shale	528	(1)
Coal	529	(3)
Varieties of Coal	529	(1)
Occurrence of Coal	530	(2)
Environmental Effects	532	(1)
Reserves and Resources	532	(1)
Uranium	532	(1)
Alternative Sources of Energy	533	(1)
Metals and Ores	533	(1)
Origin of Metallic Ore Deposits	533	(3)
Ores Associated with Igneous Rocks	534	(1)
Ores Formed by Surface Processes	535	(1)
Metal Ores and Plate Tectonics	536	(1)
Mining	536	(2)
Environmental Effects	537	(1)
Some Important Metals	538	(2)
Iron	538	(1)
Copper	538	(1)
Aluminum	538	(1)
Lead	539	(1)
Zinc	539	(1)
Silver	539	(1)
Gold	539	(1)
Other Metals	540	(1)
Nonmetallic Resources	540	(2)
Construction Materials	540	(1)
Fertilizers and Evaporites	541	(1)
Other Nonmetallics	542	(1)
Some Future Trends	542	(1)
Summary	543	(3)
Appendixes A-G	546	(10)
Glossary	556	(13)
Index	569