Physical Geology: The Science of Earth, 3rd Edition [Rental Edition]

by Fletcher, Charles

• ISBN13: 9781119626572
• ISBN10: 1119626579
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2019-07-23
• Publisher: Wiley Rental

Table of Contents

Preface vii

1 An Introduction to Geology 1

1.1 Geology is the Scientific Study of Earth and the Other Planets 2

1.2 Critical Thinking is the Use of Reasoning to Explain the World Around Us 5

1.3 Six Concepts Provide an Overarching, Big Picture of Earth 7

1.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics is a Product of Critical Thinking 10

1.5 The Topography of the Oceans and Continents Reflects Tectonic Processes 14

1.6 Rock is a Solid Aggregate of Minerals 16

1.7 Geologists Study Dangerous Natural Processes Known as Geologic Hazards 19

1.8 Geologic Resources Are not Limitless, and so Must Be Managed 22

1.9 The Geologic Time Scale Summarizes Earth’s History 27

Study Guide 29

2 Solar System 31

2.1 Earth’s Origin is Described by the Solar Nebula Hypothesis 32

2.2 The Sun is a Star that Releases Energy and Builds Elements Through Nuclear Fusion 34

2.3 Terrestrial Planets Are Small and Rocky, with Thin Atmospheres 37

2.4 Gas Giants Are Massive Planets with Thick Atmospheres 42

2.5 Objects in the Solar System Include the Dwarf Planets, Comets, and Asteroids 46

2.6 Earth’s Interior Accumulated Heat During its Early History 52

Study Guide 55

3 Plate Tectonics 57

3.1 Earth’s Interior is a Result of Chemical Differentiation and Convection 58

3.2 The Core, Mantle, and Crust Have Distinct Chemical and Physical Features 60

3.3 Lithospheric Plates Carry Continents and Oceans 63

3.4 Paleomagnetism Confirms the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis 65

3.5 Plates Have Divergent, Convergent, and Transform Boundaries 70

3.6 Oceanic Crust Subducts at Convergent Boundaries 74

3.7 Orogenesis Occurs Where Two Continents Converge 78

3.8 Transform Boundaries Connect Two Spreading Centers 80

3.9 Earthquakes Are Most Frequent at Plate Boundaries 82

3.10 Plate Movement Powers the Rock Cycle 86

Study Guide 89

4 Minerals 90

4.1 Minerals Are Solid Crystalline Compounds with a Definite, but Variable, Chemical Composition 91

4.2 A Rock is a Solid Aggregate of Minerals 93

4.3 Geologists Use Physical Properties to Identify Minerals 96

4.4 Atoms Are the Smallest Components in Nature with the Properties of a Given Substance 99

4.5 Minerals Are Compounds of Atoms Bonded Together 103

4.6 Oxygen and Silicon Are the Two Most Abundant Elements in Earth’s Crust 105

4.7 Metallic Cations Join with Silicate Structures to Form Neutral Compounds 108

4.8 There Are Seven Common Rock-Forming Minerals 111

4.9 Most Minerals Fall into Seven Major Classes 113

4.10 Mining is Necessary, and the Resulting Environmental Damage Can Be Minimized 118

Study Guide 120

5 Igneous Rock 122

5.1 Igneous Rock is Formed When Molten, or Partially Molten, Rock Solidifies 123

5.2 Igneous Rock Types Are Produced by Crystallization and Magma Differentiation 126

5.3 Bowen’s Reaction Series Describes the Crystallization of Magma 128

5.4 The Texture of Igneous Rock Records Its Crystallization History 132

5.5 Igneous Rocks Are Named on the Basis of Their Texture and Composition 134

5.6 There Are Seven Common Types of Igneous Rock 136

5.7 All Rocks on Earth Have Evolved from the First Igneous Rocks 139

5.8 Basalt Forms at Both Spreading Centers and Hotspots 143

5.9 Intrusions Occur in a Variety of Sizes and Shapes 147

Study Guide 149

6 Volcanoes 151

6.1 A Volcano is Any Landform from Which Lava, Gas, or Ashes Escape from Underground, or Have Done So in the Past 152

6.2 There Are Three Common Types of Magma: Basaltic, Andesitic, and Rhyolitic 155

6.3 Explosive Eruptions Are Fueled by Violent Releases of Volcanic Gas 159

6.4 Pyroclastic Debris is Produced by Explosive Eruptions 161

6.5 Volcanoes Can Be Classified into Six Major Types Based on Their Shape, Size, and Origin 164

6.6 Shield Volcanoes Are a Type of Central Vent Volcano 166

6.7 Stratovolcanoes and Rhyolite Caldera Complexes Are Central Vent Volcanoes 169

6.8 Large-Scale Volcanic Terrains Lack a Central Vent 174

6.9 Most Volcanoes Are Associated with Spreading Center Volcanism, Arc Volcanism, or Intraplate Volcanism 177

6.10 Volcanic Hazards Threaten Human Communities 182

Study Guide 184

7 Weathering 186

7.1 Weathering Includes Physical, Chemical, and Biological Processes 187

7.2 Physical Weathering Causes Fragmentation of Rock 190

7.3 Hydrolysis, Oxidation, and Dissolution Are Chemical Weathering Processes 194

7.4 Biological Weathering Involves Both Chemical and Physical Processes, and Sedimentary Products Result from All Three Types of Weathering 198

7.5 Rocks and Minerals Can Be Ranked by their Vulnerability to Weathering 200

7.6 The Effects of Weathering Can Change the Climate 203

7.7 Weathering Produces Soil 206

7.8 The Soil Profile, Spheroidal Weathering, and Natural Arches Are Products of Weathering 209

7.9 Soil Erosion is a Significant Problem 214

7.10 There Are 12 Orders in the Soil Classification System 217

Study Guide 219

8 Sedimentary Rock 221

8.1 Sedimentary Rock is Formed from the Weathered and Eroded Remains of Earth’s Crust 222

8.2 There Are Three Common Types of Sediment: Clastic, Chemical, and Biogenic 224

8.3 Sediments Travel from Source Area to Depositional Environment 227

8.4 Sediments Change as They Are Transported Across Earth’s Surface 228

8.5 Clastic Grains Combine with Chemical and Biogenic Sediments 232

8.6 Sediment Becomes Rock During the Sedimentary Cycle 234

8.7 There Are Eight Major Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rock 237

8.8 There Are Seven Major Types of Chemical Sedimentary Rock and Four Major Types of Biogenic Sedimentary Rock 239

8.9 Sedimentary Rocks Preserve Evidence of Past Depositional Environments 244

8.10 Primary Sedimentary Structures Record Environmental Processes 252

Study Guide 255

9 Metamorphic Rock 256

9.1 Metamorphic Rocks Are Composed of Sedimentary, Igneous, or Metamorphic Minerals that have Recrystallized 257

9.2 Metamorphism is Caused by Heat and Pressure 259

9.3 Chemically Active Fluids Transport Heat and Promote Recrystallization 261

9.4 Rocks Evolve Through a Sequence of Metamorphic Grades 265

9.5 Foliated Texture is Produced by Directed Stress Related to Regional Metamorphism 267

9.6 Nonfoliated Rocks May Develop During Regional or Contact Metamorphism 270

9.7 The Relationship Between Mineral Assemblage and Metamorphic Grade is Expressed by Metamorphic Facies 272

9.8 Metamorphism is Linked to Plate Tectonics 276

Study Guide 279

10 Mountain Building 280

10.1 Rocks in Earth’s Crust Are Bent, Stretched, and Broken 281

10.2 Strain Takes Place in Three Stages: Elastic Deformation, Ductile Deformation, and Fracture 283

10.3 Strain in the Crust Produces Joints, Faults, and Folds 285

10.4 Dip-Slip and Strike-Slip Faults Are the Most Common Types of Faults 288

10.5 Rock Folds Are the Result of Ductile Deformation 292

10.6 Outcrop Patterns Reveal the Structure of the Crust 295

10.7 The San Andreas Fault is a Plate Boundary 297

10.8 Mountain Building May Be Caused by Volcanism, Faulting, and Folding 300

10.9 Volcanic Mountains Are Formed by Volcanic Products, Not by Deformation 304

10.10 Crustal Extension Formed the Basin and

Range Province 307

10.11 Fold-and-Thrust Belts Are the Highest and Most Structurally Complex Mountain Belts 309

Study Guide 312

11 Earthquakes 314

11.1 An Earthquake is a Sudden Shaking of Earth’s Crust 315

11.2 There Are Several Types of Earthquake Hazards 317

11.3 The Elastic Rebound Theory Explains the Origin of Earthquakes 320

11.4 Most Earthquakes Occur at Plate Boundaries, but Intraplate Seismicity is Also Common 324

11.5 Divergent, Convergent, and Transform Margins Are the Sites of Frequent Earthquake Activity 326

11.6 Earthquakes Produce Four Kinds of Seismic Waves 331

11.7 Seismometers Are Instruments That Locate and Measure Earthquakes 333

11.8 Earthquake Magnitude is Expressed as a Whole Number and a Decimal Fraction 336

11.9 Seismology is the Study of Seismic Waves to Improve Our Understanding of Earth’s Interior 340

11.10 Seismic Data Confirm the Existence of Discontinuities in Earth’s Interior 344

11.11 Seismic Tomography Uses Seismic Data to Make Cross Sections of Earth’s Interior 347

Study Guide 349

12 Geologic Time 351

12.1 Earth’s History is a Sequence of Geologic Events 352

12.2 Geology is the Science of Time 354

12.3 Seven Stratigraphic Principles Are Used in Relative Dating 358

12.4 Relative Dating Determines the Order of Geologic Events 360

12.5 James Hutton Recognized the Meaning of Unconformities in the Geologic Record 363

12.6 Radiometric Dating Uses Radioactive Decay to Estimate the Age of Geologic Samples 366

12.7 Geologists Select an Appropriate Radioisotope When Dating a Sample 369

12.8 Accurate Dating Requires Understanding Sources of Uncertainty 371

12.9 Potassium-Argon and Carbon Serve as Important Isotopic Clocks 375

12.10 Scientists Arrived at Earth’s Age Via Several Independent Observations 378

Study Guide 380

13 Earth’s History 382

13.1 Earth’s History Has Been Unveiled by Scientists Applying the Tools of Critical Thinking 383

13.2 Fossils Preserve a Record of Past Life 385

13.3 Evidence of Evolution is Set in Stone 388

13.4 Molecular Biology Provides Evidence of Evolution 391

13.5 Mass Extinctions Influence the Evolution of Life 393

13.6 The Geologic Time Scale is the Calendar of Events in Earth’s History 395

13.7 The Archean and Proterozoic Eons Lasted from 3.8 Billion to 542 Million Years Ago 398

13.8 In the Paleozoic Era, Complex Life Emerged and the Continents Reorganized 401

13.9 In the Mesozoic Era, Biological Diversity Increased and Continents Reorganized 403

13.10 Modern Humans Arose in the Cenozoic Era 405

Study Guide 410

14 Climate Change 412

14.1 Climate Change Alters Environmental Processes That Affect the Whole Earth 413

14.2 Heat Circulation in the Atmosphere and Oceans Maintains Earth’s Climate 416

14.3 The Greenhouse Effect is at the Heart of Earth’s Climate System 419

14.4 The Global Carbon Cycle Describes How Carbon Moves Through Natural Systems 424

14.5 Modeling Improves Our Understanding of Climate Change 426

14.6 Human Activities Have Raised the Level of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 430

14.7 Earth’s Atmospheric Temperature Has Risen by About 1.0°C in the Past 100 Years 436

14.8 Climate Change Leads to Ocean Acidification and Warming, Glacier Melting, Weather Changes, and Other Negative Impacts 442

14.9 Fossil Fuels, Principally Oil, Provide Most of the Energy That Powers Society 447

14.10 Multiple Efforts Are Underway to Manage Climate Change 453

Study Guide 457

15 Glaciers and Paleoclimatology 459

15.1 A Glacier is a River of Ice 460

15.2 Glaciers Are Found in a Wide Diversity of Forms and Environments 462

15.3 Ice Moves Through the Interior of a Glacier As If On a One-Way Conveyor Belt 465

15.4 Glacial Landforms Are Widespread and Attest to Past Episodes of Glaciation 470

15.5 The Majority of Glaciers and Other Ice Features Are Retreating in Reaction to Global Warming 475

15.6 The Ratio of Oxygen Isotopes in Glacial Ice and Deep-Sea Sediments Provides a Proxy for Global Climate History 482

15.7 Earth’s Recent History Has Been Characterized by Alternating Cycles of Ice Ages and Interglacials 485

15.8 During the Last Interglacial, Climate Was Warmer and Sea Level Was Higher Than at Present 488

15.9 Paleoclimate is Influenced by the Timing and Location of Sunlight Reaching Earth 490

15.10 Together, Orbital Forcing and Climate Feedbacks Produced the Paleoclimate 492

Study Guide 495

16 Mass Wasting 497

16.1 Mass Wasting is the Movement of Rock and Soil Down a Slope Under the Force of Gravity 498

16.2 Creep, Solifluction, and Slumping Are Common Types of Mass Wasting 502

16.3 Fast-Moving Mass Wasting Events Tend to Be the Most Dangerous 505

16.4 Avalanches, Lahars, and Submarine Landslides Are Special Types of Mass Wasting Processes 508

16.5 Several Factors Contribute to Unstable Slopes 512

16.6 Mass Wasting Processes Vary in Speed and Moisture Content 514

16.7 Human Activities Are Often the Cause of Mass Wasting 517

16.8 Research Improves Knowledge of Mass Wasting and Contributes to the Development of Mitigation Practices 520

Study Guide 523

17 Surface Water 524

17.1 The Hydrologic Cycle Moves Water Between the Atmosphere, the Ocean, and the Crust 525

17.2 Runoff Enters Channels That Join Other Channels to Form a Drainage System 528

17.3 Discharge is the Amount of Water Passing a Given Point in a Measured Period of Time 531

17.4 Running Water Erodes Sediment 533

17.5 There Are Three Types of Stream Channels: Straight, Meandering, and Braided 535

17.6 Flooding is a Natural Process in Healthy Streams 538

17.7 Streams May Develop a Graded Profile 542

17.8 Fluvial Processes Adjust to Changes in Base Level 545

17.9 Fluvial Sediment Builds Alluvial Fans and Deltas 547

17.10 Water Problems Exist on a Global Scale 552

Study Guide 555

18 Groundwater 556

18.1 Groundwater is Our Most Important Source of Freshwater 557

18.2 Groundwater is Fed by Snowmelt and Rainfall in Areas of Recharge 559

18.3 Groundwater Moves in Response to Gravity and Hydraulic Pressure 562

18.4 Porous Media and Fractured Aquifers Hold Groundwater 566

18.5 Groundwater is Vulnerable to Several Sources of Pollution 569

18.6 Common Human Activities Contaminate Groundwater 574

18.7 Groundwater Remediation Incorporates Several Types of Treatment 577

18.8 Groundwater is Responsible for Producing Karst Topography and Springs 580

18.9 Hydrothermal Activity and Cave Formation Are Groundwater Processes 583

Study Guide 585

19 Deserts and Wind 587

19.1 Deserts May Be Hot or Cold, but Low Precipitation is a Common Trait 588

19.2 Atmospheric Moisture Circulation Determines the Location of Most Deserts 592

19.3 Several Factors Contribute to Desert Formation 594

19.4 Each Desert Has Unique Characteristics 597

19.5 Wind is an Important Geological Agent 599

19.6 Sand Dunes Reflect Sediment Availability and Dominant Wind Direction 601

19.7 Paradoxically, Arid Landforms Are Shaped by Water 606

19.8 Desertification Threatens All Six Inhabited Continents 609

Study Guide 611

20 Coastal Geology 613

20.1 Shorelines Are in a State of Perpetual Change 614

20.2 Wave Energy is the Dominant Force Driving Natural Coastal Change 616

20.3 Wave Refraction and Wave-Generated Currents Occur in Shallow Water 619

20.4 Longshore Currents and Rip Currents Transport Sediment in the Surf Zone 622

20.5 Gravity and Inertia Generate Two Tides Every Day 624

20.6 Hurricanes and Tropical Storms Cause Catastrophic Damage to Coastal Areas 626

20.7 Sea Level Rise Since the Last Ice Age Has Shaped Most Coastlines, and Continues to Do So 629

20.8 Barrier Islands Migrate with Rising Sea Level 633

20.9 Rocky Shorelines, Estuaries, and Tidal Wetlands Are Important Coastal Environments 635

20.10 Coasts May Be Submergent or Emergent, Depositional or Erosional, or Exhibit Aspects of All Four of These Characteristics 638

20.11 Coral Reefs Are Home to One-Fourth of All Marine Species 642

20.12 Coastal Problems Are Growing as Populations Increase 644

Study Guide 647

21 Marine Geology 649

21.1 Marine Geology is the Study of Geologic Processes within Ocean Basins 650

21.2 Ocean Waters Are Mixed by a Global System of Currents 652

21.3 A Continental Shelf is the Submerged Border of a Continent 656

21.4 The Continental Margin Consists of the Shelf, the Slope, and the Rise 658

21.5 Most Ocean Sediment is Deposited on the Continental Margin 661

21.6 Pelagic Sediment Covers the Abyssal Plains 663

21.7 Pelagic Stratigraphy Reflects Dissolution, Dilution, and Productivity 666

21.8 The Mid-Ocean Ridge is the Site of Seafloor Spreading 668

21.9 Oceanic Trenches Occur at Subduction Zones 670

21.10 Human Impacts on Earth’s Oceans Are Global in Extent 675

Study Guide 677

Glossary 679

Index 691