Physicochemical Treatment Processes

by Wang, Lawrence K.; Hung, Yung-Tse; Shammas, Nazih K.

• ISBN13: 9781588291653
• ISBN10: 1588291650
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-03-01
• Publisher: Humana Pr Inc

Summary

A critical survey of both the principles and practices involved in water pollution control, potable water treatment, water reuse, and sludge treatment. The authors discuss the performance, potential, and limitations of each major physicochemical treatment process in detail-including the physical and chemical theory behind it, the applications, the design procedures, examples, references, and cost data-as a basis for intelligent planning and realization of treatment systems. Among the processes covered are screening, comminution, flow equalization, neutralization, mixing, coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation, oxidation, recarbonization, softening, halogenation, and disinfection. Additional chapters discuss ozonation, electrolysis, sedimentation, dissolved air flotation, gravity filtration, granular activated carbon adsorption, and sludge treatment. The emphasis throughout is on developing the necessary engineering from fundamental principles of chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Two companion volumes, Air Pollution Control Engineering, Volume 1, and Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control, Volume 2, survey the basic air pollution control technique and the use of multiple techniques to deal with air, thermal, and noise pollution.

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Contributors	xix
Screening and Communication	1	(20)
Frank J. DeLuise
Lawrence K. Wang
Shoou-Yuh Chang
Yung-Tse Hung
Function of Screens and Comminutors	1	(1)
Types of Screens	2	(1)
Coarse Screens	2	(1)
Fine Screens	2	(1)
Physical Characteristics and Hydraulic Considerations of Screens	3	(2)
Cleaning Methods for Screens	5	(1)
Quality and Disposal for Screens	6	(1)
Comminutors	7	(1)
Engineering Specifications and Experience	8	(4)
Professional Association Specifications	8	(3)
Engineering Experience	11	(1)
Engineering Design	12	(3)
Summary of Screening Design Considerations	12	(2)
Summary of Comminution Design Considerations	14	(1)
Design Examples	15	(6)
Example 1: Bar Screen Design	15	(1)
Example 2: Bar Screen Head Loss	16	(1)
Example 3: Plugged Bar Screen Head Loss	17	(1)
Example 4: Screen System Design	17	(1)
Nomenclature	18	(1)
References	18	(3)
Flow Equalization and Neutralization	21	(26)
Ramesh K. Goel
Joseph R. V. Flora
J. Paul Chen
Introduction	21	(1)
Flow Equalization	21	(7)
Flow Equalization Basin Calculations	23	(2)
Mixing and Aeration Requirements	25	(1)
Mixer Unit	26	(2)
Neutralization	28	(4)
pH	28	(1)
Acidity and Alkalinity	29	(1)
Buffer Capacity	30	(1)
Hardness	31	(1)
Neutralization Practices	32	(4)
Neutralization of Acidity	32	(1)
Neutralization of Alkalinity	33	(1)
Common Neutralization Treatments	34	(2)
pH Neutralization Practices	36	(3)
Passive Neutralization	36	(1)
In-Plant Neutralization	36	(1)
Influent pH Neutralization	36	(1)
In-Process Neutralization	37	(1)
Effluent Neutralization	38	(1)
Chemicals for Neutralization	38	(1)
Encapsulated Phosphate Buffers for In Situ Bioremediation	39	(1)
Design of a Neutralization System	39	(1)
Design Examples	40	(7)
Nomenclature	43	(1)
References	44	(3)
Mixing	47	(56)
J. Paul Chen
Frederick B. Higgins
Shoou-Yuh Chang
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	47	(1)
Basic Concepts	48	(7)
Criteria for Mixing	50	(2)
Mixing Efficiency	52	(2)
Fluid Shear	54	(1)
Mixing Processes and Equipment	55	(31)
Mixing in Turbulent Fields	55	(3)
Mechanical Mixing Equipment	58	(11)
Impeller Discharge	69	(2)
Motionless Mixers	71	(2)
Mixing in Batch and Continuous Flow Systems	73	(4)
Suspension of Solids	77	(7)
Static Mixer	84	(2)
Design of Facilities	86	(17)
Pipes, Ducts, and Channels	86	(3)
Self-Induced and Baffled Basins	89	(1)
Mechanically Mixed Systems	90	(9)
Nomenclature	99	(1)
References	100	(3)
Coagulation and Flocculation	103	(38)
Nazih K. Shammas
Introduction	103	(1)
Applications of Coagulation	104	(1)
Water Treatment	104	(1)
Municipal Wastewater Treatment	104	(1)
Industrial Waste Treatment	104	(1)
Combined Sewer Overflow	104	(1)
Factors to be Considered in Process Selection	105	(1)
Properties of Colloidal Systems	105	(2)
Electrokinetic Properties	105	(1)
Hydration	106	(1)
Brownian Movement	106	(1)
Tyndall Effect	106	(1)
Filterability	107	(1)
Colloidal Structure and Stability	107	(2)
Destabilization of Colloids	109	(3)
Double-Layer Compression	110	(1)
Adsorption and Charge Neutralization	110	(1)
Entrapment of Particles in Precipitate	111	(1)
Adsorption and Bridging between Particles	111	(1)
Influencing Factors	112	(2)
Colloid Concentration	112	(1)
Coagulant Dosage	112	(1)
Zeta Potential	112	(1)
Affinity of Colloids for Water	113	(1)
pH Value	113	(1)
Anions in Solution	114	(1)
Cations in Solution	114	(1)
Temperature	114	(1)
Coagulants	114	(4)
Aluminum Salts	115	(1)
Iron Salts	116	(1)
Sodium Aluminate	116	(1)
Polymeric Inorganic Salts	117	(1)
Organic Polymers	117	(1)
Coagulation Aids	118	(1)
Coagulation Control	118	(3)
Jar Test	119	(1)
Zetameter	120	(1)
Streaming Current Detector	121	(1)
Chemical Feeding	121	(1)
Mixing	122	(2)
Rapid Mix	124	(1)
Flocculation	125	(2)
Design Examples	127	(14)
Nomenclature	137	(1)
References	138	(3)
Chemical Precipitation	141	(58)
Lawrence K. Wang
David A. Vaccari
Yan Li
Nazih K. Shammas
Introduction	141	(1)
Process Description	142	(1)
Process Types	142	(4)
Hydroxide Precipitation	142	(2)
Sulfide Precipitation	144	(1)
Cyanide Precipitation	145	(1)
Carbonate Precipitation	145	(1)
Coprecipitation	146	(1)
Technology Status	146	(1)
Chemical Precipitation Principles	146	(6)
Reaction Equilibria	146	(1)
Solubility Equilibria	147	(1)
Ionic Strength and Activity	148	(1)
Ionic Strength Example	149	(1)
Common Ion Effect	150	(1)
Common Ion Effect Example	150	(1)
Soluble Complex Formation	151	(1)
pH Effect	152	(1)
Solubility Diagrams	152	(1)
Chemical Precipitation Kinetics	152	(3)
Nucleation	153	(1)
Crystal Growth	153	(1)
Aging	154	(1)
Adsorption and Coprecipitation	154	(1)
Design Considerations	155	(3)
General	155	(1)
Chemical Handling	155	(1)
Mixing, Flocculation, and Contact Equipment	156	(1)
Solids Separation	157	(1)
Design Criteria Summary	157	(1)
Process Applications	158	(5)
Hydroxide Precipitation	158	(1)
Carbonate Precipitation	159	(1)
Sulfide Precipitation	160	(1)
Cyanide Precipitation	161	(1)
Magnesium Oxide Precipitation	162	(1)
Chemical Oxidation--Reduction Precipitation	162	(1)
Lime/Soda-Ash Softening	162	(1)
Phosphorus Precipitation	162	(1)
Other Chemical Precipitation Processes	163	(1)
Process Evaluation	163	(2)
Advantages and Limitations	163	(1)
Reliability	164	(1)
Chemicals Required	165	(1)
Residuals Generated	165	(1)
Process Performance	165	(1)
Application Examples	165	(34)
Nomenclature	169	(1)
References	170	(4)
Appendices	174	(25)
Recarbonation and Softening	199	(30)
Lawrence K. Wang
Jy S. Wu
Nazih K. Shammas
David A. Vaccari
Introduction	199	(1)
Process Description	199	(2)
Softening and Recarbonation Process Chemistry	201	(2)
Lime/Soda Ash Softening Process	203	(2)
Water Stabilization	205	(1)
Other Related Process Applications	206	(2)
Chemical Coagulation Using Magnesium Carbonate as a Coagulant	206	(1)
Recovery of Magnesium as Magnesium Carbonate	207	(1)
Recovery of Calcium Carbonate as Lime	207	(1)
Recarbonation of Chemically Treated Wastewaters	208	(1)
Process Design	208	(7)
Sources of Carbon Dioxide	208	(2)
Distribution Systems	210	(2)
Carbon Dioxide Quantities	212	(1)
Step-by-Step Design Approach	212	(3)
Design and Application Examples	215	(14)
Nomenclature	226	(1)
Acknowledgments	227	(1)
References	227	(2)
Chemical Oxidation	229	(42)
Nazih K. Shammas
John Y. Yang
Pao-Chiang Yuan
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	229	(4)
Dissolved Oxygen and Concept of Oxidation	230	(1)
The Definition of Oxidation State	231	(2)
Theory and Principles	233	(10)
Stoichiometry of Oxidation--Reduction Processes	234	(2)
Thermodynamics of Chemical Oxidation	236	(4)
Kinetic Aspects of Chemical Oxidation	240	(3)
Oxygenated Reagent Systems	243	(13)
Aeration in Water Purification and Waste Treatment	243	(3)
Hydrogen Peroxide and Peroxygen Reagents	246	(2)
High-Temperature Wet Oxidation	248	(8)
Transition-Metal Ion Oxidation Systems	256	(5)
Chromic Acid Oxidation	256	(2)
Permanganate Oxidation	258	(3)
Recent Developments in Chemical Oxidation	261	(3)
Ozone (O3) Processes	261	(1)
Ultraviolet (UV) Processes	262	(1)
Wet Oxidation	263	(1)
Supercritical Water Oxidation	264	(1)
Biological Oxidation	264	(1)
Examples	264	(7)
Nomenclature	268	(1)
References	269	(2)
Halogenation and Disinfection	271	(44)
Lawrence K. Wang
Pao-Chiang Yuan
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	271	(3)
Chemistry of Halogenation	274	(11)
Chlorine Hydrolysis	274	(1)
Chlorine Dissociation	274	(1)
Chlorine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	275	(4)
Chlorine Reactions with Other Inorganics	279	(2)
Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) Applications	281	(1)
Chlorine Dioxide Generation	281	(1)
Chlorine Dioxide Reaction with Nitrogenous Matter	282	(1)
Chlorine Dioxide Reactions with Phenolic Compounds and Other Substances	283	(1)
Bromine Hydrolysis	283	(1)
Bromine Dissociation	283	(1)
Bromine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	284	(1)
Iodine Hydrolysis	284	(1)
Iodine Dissociation	284	(1)
Iodine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	285	(1)
Disinfection with Halogens	285	(3)
Modes and Rate of Killing in Disinfection Process	285	(1)
Disinfection Conditions	286	(1)
Disinfection Control with Biological Tests	287	(1)
Disinfectant Concentration	288	(1)
Chlorine and Chlorination	288	(6)
Chlorine Compounds and Elemental Chlorine	289	(1)
Chlorine Feeders	290	(1)
Chlorine Handling Equipment	291	(1)
Measurement of Chlorine Residuals	291	(1)
Chlorine Dosages	292	(1)
Chlorination By-Products	293	(1)
Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection	294	(1)
Bromine and Bromination	294	(1)
Iodine and Iodination	295	(1)
Ozone and Ozonation	295	(1)
Cost Data	295	(1)
Recent Developments in Halogenation Technology	296	(4)
Recent Environmental Concerns and Regulations	296	(1)
Chlorine Dioxide	297	(1)
Chloramines	298	(1)
Coagulant	298	(1)
Ozone	299	(1)
Organic Disinfectants	299	(1)
Ultraviolet (UV)	300	(1)
Disinfection System Design	300	(5)
Design Considerations Summary	300	(1)
Wastewater Disinfection	301	(2)
Potable Water Disinfection	303	(2)
Design and Application Examples	305	(10)
Example 1 (Wastewater Disinfection)	305	(3)
Example 2 (Potable Water Disinfection)	308	(1)
Example 3 (Glossary of Halogenation, Chlorination, Oxidation, and Disinfection)	308	(3)
Nomenclature	311	(1)
References	311	(4)
Ozonation	315	(44)
Nazih K. Shammas
Lawrence K. Wang
Introduction	315	(1)
General	315	(1)
Alternative Disinfectants	316	(1)
Properties and Chemistry of Ozone	316	(3)
General	316	(1)
Physical Properties	316	(1)
Chemical Properties	317	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages	319	(1)
Applications of Ozone	319	(2)
Disinfection Against Pathogens	319	(1)
Zebra Mussel Abatement	320	(1)
Iron and Manganese Removal	320	(1)
Color Removal	320	(1)
Control of Taste and Odor	321	(1)
Elimination of Organic Chemicals	321	(1)
Control of Algae	321	(1)
Aid in Coagulation and Destabilization of Turbidity	321	(1)
Process and Design Considerations	321	(19)
Oxygen and Ozone	321	(1)
Disinfection of Water by Ozone	322	(2)
Disinfection of Wastewater by Ozone	324	(9)
Disinfection By-Products	333	(1)
Oxygenation by Ozone	334	(3)
Advanced Oxidation Processes	337	(3)
Ozonation System	340	(9)
Air Preparation	341	(3)
Electrical Power Supply	344	(1)
Ozone Generation	344	(1)
Ozone Contacting	345	(3)
Destruction of Ozone Contactor Exhaust Gas	348	(1)
Monitors and Controllers	349	(1)
Costs of Ozonation Systems	349	(4)
Equipment Costs	349	(3)
Installation Costs	352	(1)
Housing Costs	353	(1)
Operating and Maintenance Costs	353	(1)
Safety	353	(6)
Nomenclature	354	(1)
References	355	(4)
Electrolysis	359	(20)
J. Paul Chen
Shoou-Yuh Chang
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	359	(3)
Mechanisms of Electrolysis	362	(1)
Organic and Suspended Solids Removal	363	(3)
Organic and Suspended Solids Removal by Regular Electrolysis	363	(1)
Organic and Suspended Solids Removal by Electrocoagulation	364	(2)
Disinfection	366	(2)
Phosphate Removal	368	(1)
Ammonium Removal	369	(1)
Cyanide Destruction	369	(1)
Metal Removal	370	(2)
Remediation of Nitroaromatic Explosives-Contaminated Groundwater	372	(2)
Electrolysis-Stimulated Biological Treatment	374	(5)
Nitrogen Removal	375
Electrolytic Oxygen Generation	374	(2)
References	376	(3)
Sedimentation	379	(52)
Nazih K. Shammas
Inder Jit Kumar
Shoou-Yuh Chang
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	379	(1)
Historical	379	(1)
Definition and Objective of Sedimentation	380	(1)
Significance of Sedimentation in Water and Wastewater Treatment	380	(1)
Types of Clarification	380	(1)
Theory of Sedimentation	381	(9)
Class 1 Clarification	382	(4)
Class 2 Clarification	386	(1)
Zone Settling	387	(3)
Compression Settling	390	(1)
Sedimentation Tanks in Water Treatment	390	(4)
General Consideration	390	(1)
Inlet and Outlet Control	391	(1)
Tank Geometry	392	(1)
Short Circuiting	392	(1)
Detention Time	392	(1)
Tank Design	393	(1)
Sedimentation Tanks in Wastewater Treatment	394	(4)
General Consideration and Basis of Design	394	(1)
Regulatory Standards	395	(1)
Tank Types	395	(3)
Grit Chamber	398	(5)
General	398	(1)
Types of Grit Chambers	399	(1)
Velocity Control Devices	400	(2)
Design of Grit Chamber	402	(1)
Gravity Thickening in Sludge Treatment	403	(3)
Design of Sludge Thickeners	405	(1)
Recent Developments	406	(6)
Theory of Shallow Depth Settling	407	(2)
Tube Settlers	409	(1)
Lamella Separator	410	(1)
Other Improvements	411	(1)
Sedimentation in Air Streams	412	(2)
General	412	(1)
Gravity Settlers	413	(1)
Costs	414	(4)
General	414	(1)
Sedimentation Tanks	414	(2)
Gravity Thickeners	416	(1)
Tube Settlers	416	(2)
Design Examples	418	(13)
Nomenclature	426	(1)
References	427	(2)
Appendix: US Yearly Average Cost Index for Utilities	429	(2)
Dissolved Air Flotation	431	(70)
Lawrence K. Wang
Edward M. Fahey
Zucheng Wu
Introduction	431	(4)
Adsorptive Bubble Separation Processes	431	(3)
Content and Objectives	434	(1)
Historical Development of Clarification Processes	435	(5)
Conventional Sedimentation Clarifiers	435	(2)
Innovative Flotation Clarifiers	437	(3)
Dissolved Air Flotation Process	440	(4)
Process Description	440	(1)
Process Configurations	441	(2)
Factors Affecting Dissolved Air Flotation	443	(1)
Dissolved Air Flotation Theory	444	(9)
Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Full Flow Pressurization System	444	(2)
Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Partial Flow Pressurization System	446	(1)
Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Recycle Flow Pressurization	447	(1)
Air Solubility in Water at 1 Atm	448	(1)
Pressure Calculations	449	(1)
Hydraulic Loading Rate	449	(2)
Solids Loading Rate	451	(2)
Design, Operation, and Performance	453	(2)
Operational Parameters	455	(1)
Performance and Reliability	455	(1)
Chemical Treatment	455	(2)
Sampling, Tests, and Monitoring	457	(1)
Sampling	457	(1)
Laboratory and Field Tests	457	(1)
Procedures and Apparatus for Chemical Coagulation Experiments	457	(2)
Procedures and Apparatus for Laboratory Dissolved Air Flotation Experiments	459	(3)
Full Flow Pressurization System	459	(1)
Partial Flow Pressurization System	460	(1)
Recycle-Flow Pressurization System	461	(1)
Normal Operating Procedures	462	(2)
Physical Control	462	(1)
Startup	463	(1)
Routine Operations	464	(1)
Shutdown	464	(1)
Emergency Operating Procedures	464	(1)
Loss of Power	464	(1)
Loss of Other Treatment Units	465	(1)
Operation and Maintenance	465	(3)
Troubleshooting	465	(1)
Labor Requirements	465	(1)
Construction and O&M Costs	465	(1)
Energy Consumption	465	(1)
Maintenance Considerations	466	(2)
Environmental Impact and Safety Considerations	468	(1)
Recent Developments in Dissolved Air Flotation Technology	468	(4)
General Recent Developments	468	(2)
Physiochemical SBR-DAF Process for Industrial and Municipal Applications	470	(1)
Adsorption Flotation Processes	471	(1)
Dissolved Gas Flotation	471	(1)
Combined Sedimentation and Flotation	472	(1)
Application and Design Examples	472	(29)
Nomenclature	491	(1)
Acknowledgments	492	(1)
References	493	(8)
Gravity Filtration	501	(44)
J. Paul Chen
Shoou-Yuh Chang
Jerry Y. C. Huang
E. Robert Baumann
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	501	(1)
Physical Nature of Gravity Filtration	502	(2)
Transport Mechanism	502	(2)
Attachment Mechanisms	504	(1)
Detachment Mechanisms	504	(1)
Mathematical Models	504	(6)
Idealized Models	505	(4)
Empirical Models	509	(1)
Design Considerations of Gravity Filters	510	(12)
Water Variables	510	(1)
Filter Physical Variables	511	(6)
Filter Operating Variables	517	(5)
Applications	522	(5)
Potable Water Filtration	522	(1)
Reclamation of Wasterwater	522	(5)
Design Examples	527	(18)
Nomenclature	539	(1)
References	540	(5)
Polymeric Adsorption and Regenerant Distillation	545	(28)
Lawrence K. Wang
Chein-Chi Chang
Nazih K. Shammas
Introduction	545	(2)
Polymeric Adsorption Process Description	547	(1)
Process System	547	(1)
Process Steps	547	(1)
Regeneration Issues	547	(1)
Polymeric Adsorption Applications and Evaluation	548	(2)
Applications	548	(2)
Process Evaluation	550	(1)
Polymeric Adsorbents	550	(2)
Chemical Structure	550	(2)
Physical Properties	552	(1)
Adsorption Properties	552	(1)
Design Considerations	552	(5)
Adsorption Bed, Adsorbents, and Regenerants	552	(3)
Generated Residuals	555	(2)
Distillation	557	(3)
Distillation Process Description	557	(1)
Distillation Types and Modifications	557	(3)
Distillation Process Evaluation	560	(1)
Design and Application Examples	560	(13)
Acknowledgments	570	(1)
References	571	(2)
Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption	573	(62)
Yung-Tse Hung
Howard H. Lo
Lawrence K. Wang
Jerry R. Taricska
Kathleen Hung Li
Introduction	573	(3)
Process Flow Diagrams for GAC Process	576	(1)
Adsorption Column Models	577	(8)
Design of Granular Activated Carbon Columns	585	(6)
Design of GAC Columns	585	(5)
Pilot Plant and Laboratory Column Tests	590	(1)
Regeneration	591	(1)
Factors Affecting GAC Adsorption	592	(1)
Adsorbent Characteristics	592	(1)
Adsorbate Characteristics	592	(1)
Performance and Case Studies	593	(2)
Economics of Granular Activated Carbon System	595	(7)
Design Examples	602	(21)
Historical and Recent Developments in Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption	623	(12)
Adsorption Technology Milestones	623	(2)
Downflow Conventional Biological GAC Systems	625	(2)
Upflow Fluidized Bed Biological GAC System	627	(1)
Nomenclature	628	(2)
References	630	(5)
Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse	635	(42)
Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran
Huu Hao Ngo
Durgananda Singh Chaudhary
Yung-Tse Hung
Introduction	635	(1)
Conventional Physicochemical Treatment Processes	636	(22)
Principle	636	(15)
Application of the Physicochemical Processes in Wastewater Treatment and Reuse	651	(7)
Membrane Processes	658	(19)
Principle	658	(3)
Application of Membrane Processes	661	(14)
References	675	(2)
Introduction to Sludge Treatment	677	(28)
Duu-Jong Lee
Joo-Hwa Tay
Yung-Tse Hung
Pin Jing He
The Origin of Sludge	677	(1)
Conditioning Processes	678	(6)
Coagulation	678	(3)
Flocculation	681	(1)
Conditioner Choice	681	(1)
Optimal Dose	682	(2)
Dewatering Processes	684	(7)
Dewatering Processes	684	(1)
Sludge Thickening	685	(2)
Sludge Dewatering	687	(4)
Stabilization Processes	691	(8)
Hydrolysis Processes	691	(4)
Digestion Processes	695	(4)
Thermal Processes	699	(6)
Sludge Incineration	699	(2)
Sludge Drying	701	(1)
Other Thermal Processes	702	(1)
References	703	(2)
Index	705