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This book provides the whole spectrum of polysaccharides from basic concepts to commercial market applications. Chapters cover various types of sources, classification, properties, characterization, processing, rheology and fabrication of polysaccharide-based materials and their composites and gels. The applications of polysaccharides include in cosmetics, food science, drug delivery, biomedicine, biofuel production, marine, packaging, chromatography and environmental remediation. It also reviews the fabrication of inorganic and carbon nanomaterials from polysaccharides. The book incorporates industrial applications and will fill the gap between the exploration works in the laboratory and viable applications in related ventures.
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 60 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.
Mohd Imran Ahamed received his Ph.D on the topic "Synthesis and characterization of inorganic-organic composite heavy metals selective cation-exchangers and their analytical applications", from Aligarh Muslim University, India in 2019. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focusses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning.
Rajender Boddula, PdD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored twenty book chapters.
Tariq Altalhi is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material. He also researches natural extracts and their application in generation of value-added products such as nanomaterials.
Preface xxiii
1 Natural Polysaccharides From Aloe vera L. Gel (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Processing Techniques and Analytical Methods 1
Silvana Teresa Lacerda Jales, Raquel de Melo Barbosa, Girliane Regina da Silva, Patricia Severino and Tulio Flávio Accioly de Lima Moura
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Gel Composition from A. vera 3
1.2 Applications of A. vera Mucilaginous Gel or Fractions 5
1.3 Aloe vera Gel Processing 5
1.3.1 Obtaining Polysaccharide Fraction or Acemannan 8
1.4 Analytical Methods Applied 9
1.4.1 Total Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Acemannan and Free Sugars 9
1.4.2 Analytical Techniques 12
1.4.2.1 Chromatography Analysis 12
1.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 13
1.4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 14
1.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry 15
1.4.2.5 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy 16
1.4.2.6 Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling 16
1.5 Conclusion 17
References 17
2 Cell Wall Polysaccharides 23
Ata Ullah, Lutufur Rahman, Muhammad Bilal Yazdani, Muhammad Irfan, Waheed S. Khan and Asma Rehman
2.1 Introduction to Cell Wall 23
2.2 Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides 24
2.2.1 Cellulose 24
2.2.2 Hemicellulose 25
2.2.2.1 Xyloglucan 25
2.2.2.2 Xylans 25
2.2.2.3 Mannans 26
2.2.3 Callose 26
2.2.4 Pectic Polysaccharides 26
2.2.4.1 Homogalacturonan (HG) 27
2.2.4.2 Arabinan 27
2.3 Algal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 28
2.3.1 Alginates 28
2.3.2 Sulfated Galactans 28
2.3.3 Fucoidans 30
2.4 Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 30
2.4.1 Glucan 31
2.4.2 Chitin and Chitosan 31
2.5 Bacterial Cell Wall Polysaccharides 32
2.5.1 Peptidoglycan 32
2.5.2 Lipopolysaccharides 33
References 33
3 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 37
Tonmoy Ghosh, Rabinder Singh, Asha Arumugam Nesamma and Pannaga Pavan Jutur
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Polysaccharide Origins 38
3.3 Properties 38
3.3.1 Cellulose 38
3.3.2 Chitosan 40
3.3.3 Alginate 41
3.3.4 Carrageenan 41
3.3.5 Agar 41
3.3.6 Porphyran 42
3.3.7 Fucoidan 42
3.3.8 Ulvan 42
3.3.9 Exopolysaccharides From Microalgae 43
3.4 Applications of Polysaccharides 44
3.4.1 Biomedical Applications 44
3.4.1.1 Cellulose 44
3.4.1.2 Chitosan 44
3.4.1.3 Alginate 45
3.4.2 Food Applications 45
3.4.2.1 Cellulose 45
3.4.2.2 Chitosan 46
3.4.2.3 Alginates 46
3.4.2.4 Carrageenan 47
3.4.2.5 Agar 47
3.4.3 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications 47
3.4.3.1 Cellulose 47
3.4.3.2 Chitosan 47
3.4.3.3 Alginate 48
3.4.3.4 Carrageenan 48
3.4.3.5 Porphyran 49
3.4.3.6 Fucoidan 49
3.4.4 Agriculture 50
3.5 Conclusions 50
References 51
4 Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Extraction and Applications 61
Oya Irmak Şahin
4.1 Introduction 61
4.1.1 Agar 62
4.1.2 Carrageenan 63
4.1.3 Alginate (Alginic Acid, Algin) 65
4.1.4 Fucoidan 67
4.1.5 Laminaran 68
4.1.6 Ulvan 69
4.2 Conclusion 70
References 70
5 Agars: Properties and Applications 75
Sudhakar Padmesh and Aditi Singh
5.1 History and Origin of Agar 75
5.1.1 Agarophytes Used in Agar Manufacturing 76
5.2 Physical Properties of Agar Producing Seaweeds 76
5.3 Agar Manufacturing 78
5.3.1 Types of Agar Manufacturing 78
5.3.1.1 Freeze–Thaw Method 78
5.3.1.2 Syneresis Method 78
5.4 Structure of Agar 79
5.5 Heterogeneity of Agar 80
5.6 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agar 80
5.7 Chemical Characteristics of Agar 82
5.8 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Agar 83
5.8.1 Techniques to Analyze the Fine Chemical Structure of Agar 85
5.8.2 Synergies and Antagonisms of Agar Gels 86
5.9 Uses of Agar in Various Sectors 87
5.9.1 Applications of Agar in Food Industry 88
5.9.2 Application of Agar in Harvesting Insects and Worms 89
5.9.3 Vegetable Tissue Culture Formulations 90
5.9.4 Culture Media for Microbes 91
5.9.5 Industrial Applications of Agar 91
5.10 Conclusion and Discussion 91
References 92
6 Biopolysaccharides: Properties and Applications 95
Sinem Tunçer
6.1 Structure and Classification of Biopolysaccharides 95
6.1.1 Structure 95
6.1.2 Classification 97
6.1.3 Structural Characterization Techniques 98
6.2 Uses and Applications of Biopolysaccharides 99
6.2.1 Functional Fibers 100
6.2.2 Biomedicine 101
6.2.2.1 Tissue Engineering 102
6.2.2.2 Wound Healing 107
6.2.2.3 Drug Loading and Delivery 110
6.2.2.4 Therapeutics 114
6.2.3 Cosmetics 115
6.2.4 Foods and Food Ingredients 116
6.2.5 Biofuels 119
6.2.6 Wastewater Treatment 120
6.2.7 Textiles 121
6.3 Conclusion 122
References 123
7 Chitosan Derivatives: Properties and Applications 135
Gincy Marina Mathew, Sarah Bill Ulaeto, Reshmy R., Rajeev Kumar Sukumaran, Parameswaran Binod, Ashok Pandey and Raveendran Sindhu
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Properties of Chitosan Derivatives 142
7.2.1 Physiochemical Properties 142
7.2.2 Functional Properties 143
7.2.3 Biological Properties of Chitosan 144
7.3 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives 145
7.3.1 Anticancer Agents 145
7.3.2 Bone Tissue Material Formation 147
7.3.3 Wound Healing, Tissue Regeneration and Antimicrobial Resistance 148
7.3.4 Drug Delivery 149
7.3.5 Chromatographic Separations 150
7.3.6 Waste Management 150
7.3.7 Food Industry 151
7.3.8 In Cosmetics 152
7.3.9 In Paint as Antifouling Coatings 152
7.4 Conclusions 152
Acknowledgement 153
References 153
8 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides Inventory of Nador Lagoon in North East Morocco 163
El Asri Ouahid, Ramdani Mohamed and Fadlaoui Soufiane
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Nador Lagoon: Situation and Characteristics 164
8.3 Seaweed 165
8.4 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 166
8.5 Algae Polysaccharides in Nador Lagoon’s Seaweed 167
8.5.1 C. prolifera 167
8.5.1.1 Sulfated Galactans 168
8.5.2 U. rigida & E. intestinalis 168
8.5.2.1 Ulvan 169
8.5.3 C. adhaerens, C. bursa, C. tomentosum 170
8.5.3.1 Sulfated Arabinans 170
8.5.3.2 Sulfated Arabinogalactans 170
8.5.3.3 Mannans 171
8.6 Conclusion 172
References 172
9 Salep Glucomannan: Properties and Applications 177
Abdullah Kurt
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Production 179
9.3 Composition and Physicochemical Structure 181
9.4 Rheological Properties 183
9.5 Purification and Deacetylation 188
9.6 Food Applications 191
9.6.1 Beverage 191
9.6.2 Ice Cream and Emulsion Stabilizing 192
9.6.3 Edible Film/Coating 194
9.6.4 Gelation 195
9.7 Health Benefits 196
9.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 197
References 198
10 Exudate Tree Gums: Properties and Applications 205
Aruna Jyothi Kora
10.1 Introduction 205
10.1.1 Gum Arabic 206
10.1.2 Gum Karaya 208
10.1.3 Gum Kondagogu 209
10.1.4 Gum Ghatti 209
10.1.5 Gum Tragacanth 210
10.1.6 Gum Olibanum 211
10.2 Nanobiotechnology Applications 211
10.3 Minor Tree Gums 214
10.4 Conclusions 214
Acknowledgment 217
References 218
11 Cellulose and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 221
Rafael de Avila Delucis, Pedro Henrique Gonzalez de Cademartori, André Ricardo Fajardo and Sandro Campos Amico
11.1 Introduction 221
11.2 Main Raw Materials 222
11.3 Composition and Chemical Structure of Lignocellulosic Materials 224
11.4 Cellulose: Chemical Backbone and Crystalline Formats 225
11.5 Cellulose Extraction 228
11.5.1 Mechanical Methods 228
11.5.2 Chemical Methods 231
11.6 Cellulose Products and its Derivatives 232
11.7 Main Applications 236
11.8 Conclusion 241
References 242
12 Starch and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 253
Bhanita Goswami and Debajyoti Mahanta
12.1 Introduction 253
12.2 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Starch 254
12.2.1 Size, Morphology and Crystallinity of Starch Granules 255
12.2.2 Physical Properties due to Associated Lipids, Proteins and Phosphorus With Starch Granules 257
12.2.3 Solubility and Swelling Capacity of Starch 257
12.2.4 Gelatinization and Retrogradation of Starch 258
12.2.5 Birefringence and Glass Transition Temperature of Starch 259
12.2.6 Rheological and Thermal Properties of Starch 260
12.2.7 Transmittance and Opacity of Starch 260
12.2.8 Melt Processability of Starch 261
12.3 Modification of Starch 261
12.3.1 Physical Modification of Starch 262
12.3.2 Chemical Modification of Starch 263
12.3.3 Dual Modification of Starch 265
12.3.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch 265
12.3.5 Genetic Modification of Starch 265
12.4 Application of Starch and its Derivatives 266
12.4.1 In Food Industry 266
12.4.2 In Paper Industry 266
12.4.3 Starch as Binders 267
12.4.4 In Detergent Products 267
12.4.5 As Biodegradable Thermoplastic Materials or Bioplastics 267
12.4.6 In Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries 268
12.4.7 As Industrial Raw Materials 269
12.4.8 As Adsorbents for Environmental Applications 269
12.4.9 As Food Packaging Materials 269
12.4.10 In Drug Delivery 270
12.4.11 As Antimicrobial Films and Coatings 270
12.4.12 In Advanced Functional Materials 271
12.5 Conclusion 273
References 274
13 Crystallization of Polysaccharides 283
Mohsen Khodadadi Yazdi, Farzad Seidi, Yongcan Jin, Payam Zarrintaj, Huining Xiao, Amin Esmaeili, Sajjad Habibzadeh and Mohammad Reza Saeb
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Principles of Crystallization of Polysaccharides 285
13.3 Techniques for Crystallinity Measurement 287
13.4 Crystallization Behavior of Polysaccharides 287
13.4.1 Cellulose 287
13.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin 290
13.4.3 Starch 291
13.5 Polymer/Polysaccharide Crystalline Nanocomposites 293
13.6 Conclusion 293
References 294
14 Polysaccharides as Novel Materials for Tissue Engineering Applications 301
Nandini A. Pattanashetti, Anand I. Torvi, Arun K. Shettar, Pramod B. Gai and Mahadevappa Y. Kariduraganavar
14.1 Introduction 301
14.2 Types of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 303
14.3 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering 304
14.4 Polysaccharide-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 305
14.4.1 Alginate-Based Scaffolds 306
14.4.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 307
14.4.3 Cellulose-Based Scaffolds 309
14.4.4 Dextran and Pullulan-Based Scaffolds 310
14.4.5 Starch-Based Scaffolds 311
14.4.6 Xanthan-Based Scaffolds 312
14.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans-Based Scaffolds 313
14.5 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives 316
Acknowledgements 317
References 317
15 Structure and Solubility of Polysaccharides 325
Vickramjeet Singh, Shikha Indoria, K.J. Jisha and Ramesh L. Gardas
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 Polysaccharide Structure and Solubility in Water 326
15.3 Solubility and Molecular Weight 329
15.4 Solubility and Branching 330
15.5 Polysaccharide Solutions 332
15.6 Conclusions 334
Acknowledgments 334
References 334
16 Polysaccharides: An Efficient Tool for Fabrication of Carbon Nanomaterials 337
Yuliya Dzyazko and Vladimir Ogenko
16.1 Introduction 337
16.2 Aerogels 338
16.2.1 Plant and Bacterial Cellulose 339
16.2.2 Carbon Derived From Nanocrystalline Cellulose of Plant Origin 344
16.2.3 Carbon Aerogels Produced From Bacterial Cellulose 348
16.2.4 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate for Preparation of Carbon Aerogels 350
16.3 Graphene-Like Materials and Nanotubes Produced From Polysaccharides 352
16.4 Biocarbon Quantum Dots 355
16.5 Membranes Containing Carbon Nanoparticles Derived From Cellulose 356
16.6 Conclusions 358
References 358
17 Rheology and Structural Properties of Polysaccharides 367
Andreea Irina Barzic
17.1 Introduction 367
17.2 General Structural Features of Polysaccharides 368
17.3 Main Types of Polysaccharides and Their Structural Properties 370
17.4 Rheological Behavior of Polysaccharides 374
17.4.1 Semi-Diluted and Concentrated Solutions of Polysaccharides 374
17.4.2 Gels of Polysaccharides 375
17.4.3 Polysaccharide Liquid Crystals 377
17.5 Conclusions 379
References 379
18 Gums-Based Bionanostructures for Medical Applications 385
Hira Munir, Muhammad Bilal, Muhammad Imran Khan and Hafiz M.N. Iqbal
18.1 Plants and Their Bioactive Compounds 386
18.2 Natural Gums—Physicochemical Features 386
18.3 Sources of Natural Gums 387
18.3.1 Exudate Gums 387
18.3.2 Mucilages 387
18.3.3 Seaweed Polysaccharides 388
18.3.4 Microbial Polysaccharides 388
18.3.5 Animal Polysaccharide 388
18.3.6 Other Sources of Polysaccharide Gums 388
18.4 Classification of Gums 388
18.4.1 According to the Charge 388
18.4.2 According to the Source 389
18.4.3 According to Shape 389
18.4.4 According to Monomeric Units in Chemical Structure 389
18.4.5 Semi-Synthetic Gums 390
18.5 Composition of Natural Gums 390
18.6 Extraction and Purification of Natural Gums 390
18.7 Modification and Hydrolysis of Natural Gums 390
18.8 Medical Applications of Gums-Based Bio-Nanostructures 390
18.8.1 Conductive Adhesive Properties and Pharmaceutical Applications 391
18.8.2 Application in Imaging and Cell Studies 393
18.8.3 Application in Sutures 393
18.8.4 Biomaterials for Implantation 394
18.9 Conclusions 395
References 395
19 Alginates: Properties and Applications 399
Sapna Raghav, Pallavi Jain and Dinesh Kumar
19.1 Introduction 399
19.2 Properties of Sodium Alginate (Na-Alg) 400
19.2.1 Thickening Property of Alginates 401
19.2.2 Gelling Property of Alginates 401
19.2.3 Film-Forming Property 402
19.2.4 Lipophilicity 402
19.2.5 Solubility 402
19.2.6 pH Sensitivity 402
19.3 Chemical Properties 402
19.4 Applications 403
19.4.1 Bone Tissue Engineering 404
19.4.2 Pharmaceutical Applications 405
19.4.2.1 Small Chemical Drug Delivery 405
19.4.2.2 Protein Delivery 406
19.4.3 Wound Dressing 406
19.4.4 Vaccine Delivery 408
19.4.5 Water Treatment Application 410
19.4.6 Alginate for Anion Removal 410
19.5 Conclusions and Prospects 414
Acknowledgments 414
Abbreviations 414
References 414
20 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 423
Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Muhammad Akram, Inamuddin, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi
20.1 Introduction 424
20.2 Marine Bacteria That Produce Polysaccharides 425
20.3 Marine Fungi That Produce Polysaccharide 431
20.4 Production, Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 431
20.4.1 Solid State Fermentation 432
20.4.2 Submerged Fermentation 432
20.4.3 Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 432
20.5 Characterization via Molecular, Biochemical and Cultural Characterization of Marine Polysaccharides 433
20.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 434
References 434
21 Polysaccharides: Promising Constituent for the Preparation of Nanomaterials 441
Rafeeya Shams, Quratul Eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, Shafat Ahmad Khan and Anurag Singh
21.1 Introduction 441
21.1.1 Classification and Types of Nanomaterials 442
21.2 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Dependent Nanomaterials 445
21.2.1 Electrospinning 445
21.2.2 Dip Coating, Film Casting, and Physical Mixing 446
21.2.3 Layer by Layer Assembly 447
21.2.4 Ionotropic Gelation, Colloidal Assembly and Coprecipitation 447
21.2.5 In Situ NP Preparation 447
21.2.6 Ionotropic Gelation 448
21.3 Biocompatibility of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 451
21.4 Conclusions and Summary 452
References 452
22 Anticancer Potential of Polysaccharides 459
Ali Raza, Javed Iqbal, Muhammad Usman Munir, Anila Asif and Arsalan Ahmed
22.1 Introduction 459
22.2 Mode of Action 460
22.2.1 Cell-Cycle Arrest 460
22.2.2 Receptor 460
22.2.3 Immunomodulatory Effect 461
22.2.4 Chemotherapy Enhancement 461
22.2.5 Mitochondrial Membrane Inhibition 461
22.2.6 Free Radicals Capture 462
22.3 Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 462
22.3.1 Lung Cancer 463
22.3.2 Blood Cancer 464
22.3.3 Liver Cancer 465
22.3.4 Gastric and Colon Cancer 465
22.3.5 Bladder and Kidney Cancer 466
22.3.6 Breast Cancer 466
22.3.7 Cervical Cancer 467
22.4 Polysaccharides in Conventional Therapies 468
22.4.1 Chemotherapy 468
22.4.2 Radiotherapy 469
22.4.3 Surgery 469
22.4.4 Phototherapy 469
22.4.5 Drug Delivery 469
22.4.6 Bioimaging 470
22.4.7 Food Supplement 470
22.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 471
References 471
23 Polysaccharide-Based Membrane for Packaging Applications 477
Saumya Pandey
23.1 Introduction 477
23.2 Polysaccharides as Biomaterials for Biodegradable Packaging 478
23.2.1 Polysaccharides Extracted From Animals 481
23.2.1.1 Chitin and Chitosan 481
23.2.2 Polysaccharides Extracted From Plants 481
23.2.2.1 Cellulose 481
23.2.2.2 Pectin 482
23.2.2.3 Starch 483
23.2.2.4 Galactomannans 484
23.2.3 Polysaccharides Extracted From Algae 484
23.2.3.1 Carrageenan 484
23.2.3.2 Alginate 484
23.2.4 Polysaccharides Synthesized by Microorganisms 485
23.2.4.1 Pullulan 485
23.2.4.2 Gellan Gum 485
23.2.4.3 Xanthan Gum 486
23.2.4.4 FucoPol 486
23.3 Properties of Polysaccharide-Based Packaging Film or Coating 486
23.3.1 Barrier Properties of Film or Coatings 486
23.3.2 Mechanical Properties of the Film 488
23.4 Polysaccharides-Based Nanocomposites Packaging 489
23.5 Polysaccharides-Based Films and Coatings in Food Packaging Applications 490
23.5.1 Food Preservation and Self-Life Extension 490
23.5.2 Antimicrobial Coating 490
23.5.3 Delaying of Post-Harvest Ripening 491
23.5.4 Restoring Color, Aroma and Nutritional Value 491
23.5.5 Antioxidant Properties 491
23.6 Conclusion and Prospects 492
References 493
24 Applications of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 501
Nivedita Pujari S., Joy Hoskeri H., Anand I. Torvi and Arun K. Shettar
24.1 Introduction 501
24.2 Types of Polysaccharides Used in Cancer Treatment 502
24.2.1 Animal Polysaccharides 502
24.2.2 Vegetal Polysaccharides 503
24.2.3 Microorganism and Fungi Polysaccharides 503
24.3 Mechanism of Polysaccharides as Anticancer Agent 504
24.3.1 Actions of Polysaccharides as Immunological Functioning 504
24.3.2 Role of Polysaccharides in Cell Signaling 505
24.3.3 Effect of Polysaccharides in Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest 506
24.3.4 Antitumor Effect of Polysaccharides 506
24.4 Usage of Polysaccharides in Preclinical and Clinical Models of Cancer 507
24.4.1 In-Vitro Cell Line Model 507
24.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer in Animal Model Study 508
24.4.3 Clinical Trials of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 508
24.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 510
References 510
25 Application of Chitosan-Based Catalysts for Heterocycles Synthesis and Other Reactions 517
Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar, Nelson L.C. Domingues, Ramesh Katla and Rakhi Katla
25.1 Introduction 517
25.2 Recent Research Reports 518
25.2.1 Furans 518
25.2.2 Pyrazoles 518
25.2.3 Imidazoles 519
25.2.4 Oxazoles 520
25.2.5 Thiazoles 521
25.2.6 Triazoles 522
25.2.7 Tetrazoles 523
25.2.8 Pyridines 524
25.2.9 Quinolines 524
25.2.10 Pyrazines 525
25.2.11 Pyrimidines 525
25.2.12 Quinazolines 527
25.2.13 Phthalazines 527
25.2.14 Perimidines 527
25.2.15 Pyrans 528
25.2.16 Coumarins 530
25.2.17 Chromenes 530
25.2.18 Other Reactions 531
25.2.18.1 Oxidations 531
25.2.18.2 Reductions 533
25.2.18.3 Coupling/Condensation Reactions 533
25.2.18.4 Isomerization 537
25.2.18.5 Ring Opening 538
25.3 Conclusion 538
References 539
26 Preparation and Applications of Polysaccharide-Based Composites 543
Sadaf Ahmad, Bushra Anees Palvasha, Bakar bin Khatab Abbasi, Muhammad Shahid Nazir, Majid Niaz Akhtar, Zaman Tahir and Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah
26.1 Introduction 544
26.2 Types 544
26.2.1 Cellulose 544
26.2.2 Starch 545
26.2.3 Glycogen 545
26.2.4 Chitin 545
26.2.5 Pectin 546
26.3 Importance 546
26.4 Fabrication and Applications of Polysaccharide-Inorganic-Based Composites 547
26.4.1 Cellulose–Inorganic Materials 547
26.4.2 Starch–Inorganic Materials 553
26.4.3 Pectin–Inorganic Materials 557
26.4.4 Chitin and Chitosan–Inorganic Materials 559
26.4.5 Polysaccharides–Metal Organic Frameworks 561
26.5 Recent Applications 564
26.6 Conclusion 565
References 566
27 Polysaccharide-Based Liquid Crystals 573
Sumaira Saleem, Gulzar Muhammad, Muhammad Mudassir Iqbal, Muhammad Ajaz Hussain, Muhammad Arshad Raza, Zahid Shafiq and Haseeba Razzaq
27.1 Introduction 573
27.2 Polysaccharides-Based Liquid Crystals 575
27.2.1 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystals 575
27.2.2 Liquid Crystals From Cellulose Derivatives 578
27.2.3 Amylose-Based Liquid Crystals 579
27.2.4 Dextrin-Based Liquid Crystals 582
27.2.5 Chitin-Based Liquid Crystals 584
27.2.6 Schizophyllan-Based Liquid Crystals 585
27.3 Conclusion 586
References 586
28 Patents on Polysaccharide Applications 591
Nadhratun Naiim Mobarak, Sharifah Nabihah Syed Jaafar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed
28.1 Introduction 591
28.2 Polysaccharides in Medical Application 595
28.3 Polysaccharides in Cosmetic Application 597
28.4 Polysaccharides in Battery Components 600
28.5 Polysaccharides in Paper Manufacture 601
28.6 Conclusion 601
References 602
29 Applications of Polysaccharides in Controlled Release Drug Delivery System 607
Muhammad Harris Shoaib, Muhammad Sikandar, Farrukh Rafiq Ahmed, Fatima Ramzan Ali, Faaiza Qazi, Rabia Ismail Yousuf, Asma Irshad, Sabahat Jabeen and Kamran Ahmed
29.1 Introduction 607
29.2 Polysaccharides From Plant Sources and Their Derivatives 608
29.2.1 Cellulose 608
29.2.2 Cellulose Derivatives 609
29.2.2.1 Cellulose Ethers 609
29.2.2.2 Cellulose Esters 612
29.2.3 Hemicellulose 613
29.2.3.1 Mannans 614
29.2.4 Starch 617
29.2.5 Pectin 618
29.2.6 Lignin 619
29.2.7 Inulin 620
29.3 Gums 620
29.3.1 Exudate Gums 620
29.3.1.1 Gum Arabic (Gum Acacia) 620
29.3.1.2 Gum Tragacanth 621
29.3.1.3 Gum Karaya 621
29.3.2 Mucilage Gums 622
29.3.2.1 Okra Gum 622
29.3.2.2 Khaya Gum 622
29.3.2.3 Hakea Gum 622
29.3.2.4 Cassia tora Gum 623
29.3.2.5 Albizia Gum 623
29.3.2.6 Prunus cerasoides Gum 623
29.3.2.7 Tamarind Gum 623
29.3.2.8 Cissus populnea Gum 624
29.4 Polysaccharides From Algal Sources 624
29.4.1 Alginates 624
29.4.2 Galactans 626
29.4.3 Carrageenan 626
29.4.4 Agar 627
29.4.5 Agarose 628
29.5 Polysaccharides From Fungal Sources 629
29.5.1 Scleroglucan 629
29.5.2 Beta-Glucan 629
29.5.3 Pullulan 630
29.6 Polysaccharides From Animals Sources and Their Derivatives 631
29.6.1 Chitin 631
29.6.2 Chitosan 632
29.6.3 Hyaluronic Acid 633
29.6.4 Glycogen 633
29.6.5 Chondroitin Sulfate 633
29.6.6 Dermatan Sulfate 634
29.6.7 Gelatin 634
29.7 Polysaccharides From Microorganisms 635
29.7.1 Curdlan 635
29.7.2 Xanthan Gum 636
29.7.3 Gellan Gum 637
References 637
30 Applications of Polysaccharides in Nutrition and Medicine 657
Nivedita Pujari S., Arun K. Shettar and Joy Hoskeri H.
30.1 Introduction 657
30.2 Sources of Polysaccharides 658
30.2.1 Polysaccharides in Dietary Fibers 658
30.2.2 Polysaccharides in Plants 659
30.2.3 Polysaccharides in Algae and Lichens 659
30.2.4 Polysaccharides in Fungi 660
30.2.5 Polysaccharides From Bacteria 661
30.2.6 Polysaccharides From Other Sources 662
30.3 Role of Polysaccharides in Nutrition 662
30.3.1 Polysaccharides in Food 662
30.3.2 Polysaccharides as Energy Sources 663
30.3.3 Health Impact of Polysaccharides 664
30.3.4 Nutritional Aspect of Polysaccharides 664
30.4 Biomedical Applications of Polysaccharides 665
30.4.1 Polysaccharides as Antimicrobial and Antiviral 665
30.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer 666
30.4.3 Polysaccharides as Anti-Obesity and Anti-Hypercholesterolemic Agents 667
30.4.4 Polysaccharides as Antidiabetic Agents 669
30.4.5 Polysaccharides as Immune Modulator Agent 670
30.4.6 Polysaccharides as Anti-Inflammatory Agent 671
30.4.7 Polysaccharides as Neuro-Protective Agent 672
30.4.8 Polysaccharides as a Source of Antioxidant 672
30.4.9 Polysaccharides in Wound Healing and Wound Dressing 673
30.5 Conclusion 674
References 674
31 Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines: Progress and Achievements 683
Rafig Gurbanov
31.1 A Brief History of Vaccination 683
31.2 The Leverage of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines Over Natural Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 684
31.3 The Principles of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 686
31.3.1 Tumor Vaccines 689
31.3.2 Leishmaniasis Vaccines 690
31.3.3 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Vaccines 690
31.3.4 Bacterial Vaccines 691
31.4 The Opportunities and Prospects of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccine Technologies 692
References 694
32 Polysaccharides Derived From Natural Sources: A Panacea to Health and Nutritional Challenges 701
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Khuram Shahzad, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Sidra Hasan, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Syed Muhammad Hasan, Inamuddin, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi
32.1 Introduction 702
32.2 Different Types of Polysaccharides Derived From Different Natural Sources 703
32.2.1 Polysaccharides Derived From Plants and Their Applications 704
32.2.2 Animal Derived Polysaccharides and Their Applications 705
32.2.2.1 Chitosan and Chitin 705
32.2.2.2 Heparin and Heparin Sulfates 706
32.2.2.3 Hyaluronic Acid 707
32.2.3 Microorganisms Derived Polysaccharides and Their Applications 707
32.2.3.1 Alginate 707
32.2.3.2 Dextran 708
32.2.3.3 Fucoidans 708
32.2.3.4 Spirulina 708
32.2.4 Homoglycans 709
32.2.4.1 Starch and Hetastarch 709
32.2.4.2 Cellulose 709
32.2.4.3 Inulin 710
32.2.4.4 Chitin and Chitosan 710
32.2.4.5 Glycogen 712
32.2.4.6 Heteroglycans and Other Polysaccharides 712
32.2.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans Significance 715
32.2.4.8 Chondroitin Sulfates 715
32.2.4.9 Hyaluronic Acid 715
32.2.4.10 Alginic Acid 715
32.2.4.11 Mucopolysaccharidoses 717
32.3 Production, Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 718
32.3.1 Solid State Fermentation 719
32.3.2 Submerged Fermentation 719
32.3.3 Extraction and Purification Process of Polysaccharides 720
32.4 Specific Examples of Polysaccharides and Their Various Applications in Nutrition and Medicine 720
32.4.1 Schizophyllan 720
32.4.1.1 Antitumor Activity of Schizophyllan 721
32.4.1.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Schizophyllan 721
32.4.1.3 Immunomodulatory Activity of Schizophyllan 721
32.4.1.4 Prebiotic Potential of Schizophyllan 722
32.4.2 Pleuran and Others Polysaccharides From Pleurotus spp. 722
32.4.2.1 Specific Nutritional and Beneficial Functions of Pleurotus Polysaccharides 722
32.4.3 Scleroglucan 723
32.4.3.1 Applications for Nutritional and Medicinal Purposes Derived From Scleroglucan 723
32.4.4 Curdlan 724
32.4.5 Other Essential Polysaccharides With Medical Significance 725
32.5 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 725
References 725
Index 739
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