Practical Applications of Radioactivity and Nuclear Radiations

by Gerhart Lowenthal , Peter Airey

• ISBN13: 9780521019804
• ISBN10: 052101980X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-09-15
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

This book is aimed at scientists and engineers wanting to use radioisotopes and the emitted ionising radiations competently but without seeking expertise. It describes decay and stability criteria, necessary precautions to ensure radiation protection and the detection of alpha, beta and gamma rays including spectrometry. There are comments on calorimetry, liquid scintillation counting, how to use secondary standard instruments, high resolution detectors and how to calculate counting results estimating uncertainties and allowing for the statistics of radionuclide decays. The book's principal purpose is to encourage radionuclide applications which can be done safely, reliably and accurately. It describes industrial and scientific applications of alpha, beta, and gamma rays, neutrons and high energy radiations. This book will be of particular interest to scientists and technologists, teachers and students, helping them to work with radioisotopes safely, efficiently and reliably.

Table of Contents

List of illustrations	xvii
List of tables	xxi
Foreword	xxiii
Preface	xxv
Atoms, nuclides and radionuclides	1	(31)
Introduction	1	(4)
Radioactivity, from the 1890s to the 1990s	1	(2)
On the scope and content of this text	3	(1)
Joining a large scale enterprise	4	(1)
Nuclear power and nuclear radiation applications	4	(1)
Figures from Japan	4	(1)
The role of research reactors	5	(1)
An historic interlude: from atoms to nuclei	5	(3)
When atoms ceased to be atoms	5	(2)
The atomic nucleus	7	(1)
Nuclei, nuclear stability and nuclear radiations	8	(11)
The birth of isotopes	8	(1)
Mass-energy conversions and the half life	9	(2)
From natural to man-made radioisotopes	11	(2)
The role of the neutron-to-proton ratio	13	(2)
An introduction to properties of radiations emitted during radioactive decays	15	(2)
Another nuclear radiation: the neutron	17	(2)
Activation processes	19	(5)
Nuclear fission reactors	19	(2)
Thermal neutron activations	21	(1)
Activation and decay	22	(1)
Other activation processes	22	(1)
The production of neutron-poor radionuclides	22	(1)
Positron emitters for nuclear medicine	23	(1)
Short and long half lines and their uses	24	(5)
Generators for short half life radionuclides	24	(1)
Isomeric decays with applications to nuclear medicine	25	(1)
Radionuclides with very long half lives	26	(1)
The energetics of decays by alpha and beta particle emissions	27	(2)
Parent half lives and daughter half lives	29	(3)
Three cases	29	(1)
Decay chain calculations	29	(1)
Transient and secular equilibrium	30	(2)
Units and standards for radioactivity and radiation dosimetry and rules for radiation protection	32	(27)
Introduction	32	(1)
Units and standards of radioactivity	32	(5)
A summary of their characteristics	32	(2)
The curie and the becquerel	34	(1)
Secondary standards and secondary standard instruments	35	(1)
In-house standards	36	(1)
Radioactivity standards	37	(1)
Comments on their production and their purpose	37	(1)
The international dimension of radioactivity standards	37	(1)
Radiation dosimetry for radiation protection	38	(5)
Absorbed dose limitations	38	(1)
Units for exposure, absorbed and equivalent dose	39	(1)
Weighting factors, wR and wT	40	(3)
Dose limits	43	(6)
The linear hypothesis and the ALARA principle	43	(1)
Deterministic and stochastic effects	44	(2)
Background doses and their relevance for radiation protection	46	(3)
Radiation protection in the laboratory	49	(5)
Classifications of sources and of laboratories	49	(1)
Time, distance and shielding	50	(1)
Coping with radioactive waste	51	(1)
The radiation advisory officer	51	(1)
Radiation monitors	52	(2)
Guarding against radioactive contamination	54	(1)
Dose rates from alpha, beta and gamma ray emitting radionuclides	54	(5)
Rules-of-thumb for work with alpha and beta particles	54	(1)
Dose rates from X and gamma radiations	55	(1)
The dose equivalent rate constant, Dcq	55	(1)
Dose calculations	56	(3)
Properties of radiations emitted from radionuclides	59	(36)
Tools for applications	59	(1)
Properties of alpha particles	59	(4)
The nature and origin of alpha particles	59	(2)
Alpha particle interactions with matter	61	(1)
Ionisation intensities of alpha particles	62	(1)
Properties of beta particles	63	(5)
Beta particles and electrons	63	(2)
Beta particle applications	65	(1)
The scattering and backscattering of beta particles	65	(1)
An introduction to beta particle spectra	66	(1)
Surface density	67	(1)
Properties of gamma rays and X rays	68	(7)
Gamma rays and their decay data	68	(1)
X rays	69	(1)
Three types of gamma ray interactions	70	(2)
Photon attenuation, an overview	72	(1)
Attenuation equations for narrow beam geometry	73	(1)
Photon attenuation measurements using μm	74	(1)
Pulse height spectra due to alpha particles and gamma rays	75	(4)
The response of detectors	75	(2)
Alpha particle spectra	77	(1)
Gamma ray spectra	78	(1)
Electron capture (EC), gamma rays and conversion electrons	79	(3)
EC decays and their use as quasi-pure gamma ray emitters	79	(2)
The internal conversion process	81	(1)
The role of mass energy in determining nuclear decays	82	(6)
Neutron-poor radionuclides	82	(1)
Positron decay and positron tomography	82	(2)
Multi gamma ray emitters	84	(3)
Three-pronged decays	87	(1)
Bremsstrahlung	88	(1)
Its origin	88	(1)
Bremsstrahlung intensities	88	(1)
Fluorescent radiations	89	(6)
Fluorescent X rays	89	(2)
Inner shell transitions	91	(3)
Auger electrons and fluorescent yields	94	(1)
Nuclear radiations from a user's perspective	95	(28)
The penetrating power of nuclear radiations	95	(1)
Radioactive sources	96	(5)
Radionuclides and their decay schemes	96	(1)
Source making and counting procedures	97	(1)
Laboratory equipment	97	(1)
Procedures for making thin sources	98	(1)
Sealed sources	99	(1)
Liquid scintillation counting to minimise source self-absorption	100	(1)
Gamma ray applications	101	(5)
The role of electronic instruments	101	(2)
NIM bin and portable equipment	103	(1)
Comments on instrumentation and its supply	104	(2)
Gamma ray counting with Nal(TI) detectors	106	(7)
Further comments on Nal(TI) detectors	106	(1)
Nal(TI), an inorganic scintillation detector	106	(1)
Selected characteristics of integral assemblies	106	(1)
Total efficiencies and peak-to-total ratios	107	(1)
Integral counting	108	(2)
Peak counting	110	(1)
Precautions to avoid errors due to Compton scatter	110	(3)
Corrections and precautions, part 1	113	(4)
A summary	113	(1)
Dead time corrections	113	(1)
Pulse pile-up, random and coincidence summing	114	(1)
Randomly occurring effects	114	(2)
Coincidence summing	116	(1)
Decay corrections	117	(1)
Corrections and precautions, part 2	117	(6)
Unwanted radiations, a summary	117	(1)
Radioactive parents and daughters	117	(1)
Radionuclidic impurities	118	(1)
The gamma ray background	119	(2)
The alpha and beta particle background	121	(2)
Ionising radiation detectors	123	(24)
Radiation detectors, a summary	123	(1)
Characteristics of ionisation detectors	123	(3)
Saturation currents and gas multiplication	123	(1)
Three saturation chambers	124	(2)
Parallel plate and cylindrical chambers	126	(1)
Proportional and Geiger--Muller counters	126	(6)
Thin wire counters	126	(1)
Operating principles	126	(2)
Ion multiplication by collision	128	(2)
The Geiger--Muller counter	130	(1)
The proportional counter	131	(1)
The proportional region	131	(1)
Unsealed 4π windowless proportional counting	132	(1)
Alpha and beta particle counting	132	(1)
Other detectors and detection methods	132	(7)
A matter of emphasis	132	(1)
Liquid scintillation (LS) counting	133	(1)
Introduction	133	(1)
Quenching agents	133	(2)
Comments on LS counting procedures	135	(1)
Microcalorimetry for routine activity measurements	136	(1)
Counting decays with thermal power	136	(1)
Microcalorimetry for nuclear radiation applications	136	(2)
Neutron detection for scientific and industrial applications	138	(1)
An overview	138	(1)
Proportional counting	138	(1)
Measurements using high-intensity neutrons	139	(1)
An introduction to semiconductor detectors	139	(8)
A few historical highlights on energy spectrometry	139	(1)
Characteristics of germanium and silicon detectors	140	(3)
Lithium drifted and high-purity germanium detectors	143	(1)
Further comments on silicon detectors	143	(1)
Detectors made from crystals of semiconducting compounds	144	(1)
Energy resolution	145	(1)
A postscript on semiconducting detectors	146	(1)
Radioactivity and countrate measurements and the presentation of results	147	(34)
An introduction to radioactivity measurements	147	(2)
Problems	147	(1)
A role for secondary standard instruments	148	(1)
Comments on the preparation of radioactivity standards	149	(2)
Problems with beta particle emitters	149	(1)
Accurate radioactivity measurements	149	(2)
4πγ pressurised ionisation chambers	151	(8)
Introduction	151	(1)
Two types of 4πγ pressurised ionisation chambers	151	(2)
Dose calibrators	153	(2)
General purpose pressurised ionisation chambers	155	(1)
Their role as precision instruments	155	(1)
Activity calibrations	156	(3)
The calibration graph	159	(1)
Gamma ray spectrometers and gamma ray spectrometry	159	(7)
Towards multi gamma ray spectrometry	159	(1)
Escape peaks	160	(2)
Energy calibrations	162	(1)
Energy resolution	162	(1)
Full energy peak efficiency calibration	163	(1)
Introduction	163	(1)
Preparatory procedures	163	(1)
The calibration	163	(1)
Secondary standard instruments: strong and weak points	164	(2)
Results, part 1: collecting the data	166	(2)
Five components for a complete result	166	(1)
Errors and uncertainties	167	(1)
Results, part 2: Poisson and Gaussian statistics	168	(7)
A first look at statistical distributions	168	(1)
The Poisson distribution	169	(2)
Gaussian statistics	171	(3)
Confidence limits	174	(1)
Other characteristics of results and statistical tests	175	(4)
Countrates and their combination	175	(1)
Tests for accuracy and consistency	176	(1)
Accuracy	176	(1)
Consistency	177	(1)
Tests for randomness	177	(2)
Moving on to applications	179	(2)
Industrial applications of radioisotopes and radiation	181	(51)
Introduction	181	(5)
A change of emphasis	181	(1)
An overview of industrial applications	181	(1)
Summary	181	(1)
Optimisation and control of processes in industrial plant	182	(1)
Plant diagnostics	182	(1)
Testing and inspection of materials	182	(1)
Composition and structure of materials	183	(1)
Modification and syntheses of materials	183	(1)
Environmental applications	183	(3)
Scientific and industrial applications of gamma rays	186	(21)
Applications employing gamma ray attenuation	186	(1)
Nucleonic gauges	186	(1)
Level gauges	187	(1)
Optimum choice of the radioactive source	187	(2)
Density gauges	189	(3)
Mineral processing	192	(1)
Coastal engineering	192	(1)
Radiography	192	(1)
Computerised tomography (CT)	193	(5)
Column scanning	198	(1)
On-line measurement of ash in coal	198	(3)
Applications based on gamma ray backscatter	201	(1)
Backscatter gauges	201	(1)
Borehole logging using backscattered y rays	201	(3)
Applications based on X ray fluorescence	204	(1)
Introduction	204	(1)
X ray fluorescence analysis	204	(2)
Portable X ray fluorescence gauges	206	(1)
Applications to the mineral processing industry	207	(1)
Scientific and industrial applications of beta particles and electrons	207	(4)
Attenuation of beams of beta particles and electrons	207	(1)
Applications in paper manufacture	208	(1)
Industrial applications of beta particle backscatter	208	(1)
Special applications: electron microscopy	209	(2)
Scientific and industrial applications of neutrons	211	(11)
Comments on work with neutrons and neutron doses	211	(1)
Industrial applications of neutron sources	211	(1)
Neutron sources	211	(4)
Neutron moderation	215	(1)
Neutron backscatter gauges	216	(1)
Neutron moisture meters	216	(1)
Borehole logging with neutrons	217	(1)
Neutron radiography	218	(1)
Neutron diffraction	219	(1)
Neutron activation analysis (NAA)	220	(1)
An overview	220	(1)
Prompt neutron activation analysis	220	(1)
Instrumented neutron activation analysis	221	(1)
Other comments	222	(1)
Scientific and industrial applications of protons and alpha particles	222	(2)
Introduction	222	(1)
Multi element analyses	222	(1)
Thin layer activation	223	(1)
Smoke detectors	224	(1)
Scientific and industrial applications of the absorption of radiation	224	(8)
The chemical effects of radiation	224	(2)
Radiation chemistry of aqueous solutions	226	(1)
Basic processes	226	(1)
Chemical dosimetry	226	(2)
Industrial applications of high-energy radiation	228	(1)
Introductory comment	228	(1)
Radiation induced polymerisation	228	(1)
Effects of high-energy radiation on polymers	229	(1)
Radiation sterilisation	230	(1)
Introduction	230	(1)
Sterilisation of disposable medical products	230	(1)
Other applications	231	(1)
Food irradiation	231	(1)
Application of tracer technology to industry and the environment	232	(35)
Introduction	232	(6)
Radiotracers come on the scene	232	(1)
Radiotracers: their advantages and their problems	233	(1)
The advantages of radiotracers, a summary	233	(2)
Radiation safety	235	(2)
The evolution of radiotracer applications	237	(1)
Early examples of tracer applications	237	(1)
Recent advances	237	(1)
Tracer applications in the field	238	(8)
The general concept of the radiotracer experiment	238	(2)
Choice of the optimum radiotracer: general considerations	240	(1)
Introduction	240	(1)
Water tracing	241	(1)
Sand and sediment tracing	242	(1)
Industrial tracing	242	(1)
Isotope injections	243	(1)
Tracer detection and monitoring in the field	243	(1)
Field monitoring systems	243	(1)
The role of scattered radiation in the monitoring of radiotracers	244	(1)
Accurate field measurements	245	(1)
Applications of tracer technology to flow studies	246	(14)
General principles	246	(1)
Introduction	246	(1)
Residence time distribution (RTD)	246	(1)
Mean residence time (MRT)	247	(1)
Complete mixing	247	(1)
Flow rate measurements: an overview	248	(1)
Flow rate measurements: transit time techniques	248	(1)
Pulse velocity method	248	(2)
Correlation methods	250	(1)
Flow rate measurements: tracer dilution methods	250	(1)
Introduction	250	(1)
Tracer injection at a constant rate	250	(2)
Flow rate measurements: total sample method	252	(1)
Principle of the method	252	(1)
Case study: gas flow rate measurement	252	(1)
Optimising accuracy	253	(1)
Flow rate measurements: total count method	254	(1)
Residence time distribution	255	(1)
Residence time distribution: idealised plug flow	255	(2)
Residence time distribution: idealised stirred flow	257	(1)
Stirred flow	257	(1)
An example from the gold extraction industry	258	(1)
A comment on modelling complex flows	258	(2)
Industrial applications of tracers: case studies	260	(5)
Introduction	260	(1)
Fluidised catalytic cracking unit	260	(2)
Radiotracers in the iron and steel industry	262	(1)
Inventories	263	(1)
Accurate measurements of activity ratios	263	(1)
Mercury inventories	264	(1)
Conclusions	265	(2)
Radionuclides to protect the environment	267	(56)
Introduction	267	(5)
The investigation of environmental systems	272	(7)
Numerical modelling	272	(6)
Applications of radioisotopes	278	(1)
Environmental applications of radioisotopes	279	(15)
Introduction	279	(1)
River flow measurements	279	(1)
The total sample method using tritium	279	(2)
The total count method	281	(3)
Studies of the dispersion of contaminants	284	(1)
Competition for environmental resources	284	(1)
Dispersion of contaminants	284	(2)
An analytical treatment of dispersion	286	(1)
A case study: sewage dispersion	286	(3)
Applications of tracer techniques to sediment and sand tracing	289	(1)
Measurements of migration rates	289	(1)
Coastal engineering demonstrations	289	(3)
Detector calibration	292	(1)
Suspended sediment gauges	293	(1)
Applications of naturally occurring radioisotopes	294	(8)
Man-made versus environmental radioisotopes	294	(1)
Erosion studies	294	(1)
A new use for caesium-137	294	(1)
Procedures and applications	295	(2)
An interesting result	297	(1)
Other techniques	297	(1)
Groundwater	298	(1)
Introduction	298	(1)
Groundwater resource evaluation	298	(1)
Locations of recharge areas	299	(1)
The dating of underground water	300	(1)
Accelerator mass spectrometry	301	(1)
Oceanography	301	(1)
Nuclear waste disposal	302	(2)
The need for complete isolation	302	(1)
Natural analogues	303	(1)
Multi-barrier systems	303	(1)
A natural analogue of the leaching of fission products from spent fuel	303	(1)
Regulatory requirements	304	(1)
Summary and conclusions	304	(2)
Appendices
Glossary of technical terms	306	(5)
A selection of references to texts on health physics and radiation protection	311	(1)
Comments on the availability of nuclear data on the Internet	312	(3)
Application of tracer techniques to fluid dynamics	315	(5)
Dispersion processes	320	(3)
References	323	(8)
Index	331