Practical Environmental Analysis

by Radojevic, Miroslav; Bashkin, Vladimir N.

• ISBN13: 9780854046799
• ISBN10: 0854046798
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-05-30
• Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry

Summary

New techniques, improvements in understanding and changes in regulations relating to environmental analysis mean that students, technicians and lecturers alike need an up-to-date guide to practical environmental analysis. This unique book provides detailed instructions for practical experiments in environmental analysis. The comprehensive coverage includes the chemical analysis of important pollutants in air, water, soil and plant tissue, with experiments generally requiring only basic laboratory equipment and instrumentation. The principles behind each method are explained and the importance of various pollutants in the environment is discussed. Also included are suggestions for projects and worked examples, and appendices cover environmental standards, practical safety and good laboratory practice. Building on the foundations laid by the highly-acclaimed first edition, this revised and updated new edition is certain to be valued as an indispensable guide to practical environmental analysis by students and lecturers from a wide range of scientific disciplines.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction	1	(44)
1.1 The Environment	1	(9)
1.1.1 Biogeochemical Cycles	1	(3)
1.1.2 Environmental Pollution	4	(4)
1.1.3 Effects of Pollution	8	(1)
1.1.4 Environmental Standards	9	(1)
1.2 Environmental Analysis	10	(3)
1.2.1 Aims of Analysis	10	(1)
1.2.2 Types of Analysis	11	(1)
1.2.3 Stages of Analysis	12	(1)
1.3 Sampling and Storage	13	(3)
1.3.1 Sampling	13	(1)
1.3.2 Storage	14	(2)
1.4 Sample Treatment	16	(1)
1.5 Analytical Methods	17	(3)
1.5.1 Selection of Method	17	(1)
1.5.2 Classical Analysis	17	(2)
1.5.3 Instrumental Analysis	19	(1)
1.5.4 Test Kits and Portable Laboratories	19	(1)
1.6 Standardisation and Calibration	20	(2)
1.6.1 Standardisation	20	(1)
1.6.2 Calibration	21	(1)
1.6.3 Standard Addition	21	(1)
1.6.4 Blanks	22	(1)
1.7 Analytical Data	22	(14)
1.7.1 Concentration Units	22	(2)
1.7.2 Significant Figures	24	(1)
1.7.3 Accuracy and Precision	25	(1)
1.7.4 Errors	25	(1)
1.7.5 Reporting of Results	26	(2)
1.7.6 Rejection of Data	28	(1)
1.7.7 Correlation Coefficient	29	(3)
1.7.8 Linear Regression	32	(1)
1.7.9 Detection Limits	33	(1)
1.7.10 Reference Materials	34	(1)
1.7.11 Quality Control	34	(2)
1.8 Common Problems of Environmental Analysis	36	(1)
1.9 Ethics	37	(2)
1.10 A Word of Advice	39	(1)
Exercises and Information	40	(5)
Questions and Problems	40	(2)
Suggestions for Projects	42	(1)
Reference	43	(1)
Further Reading	43	(2)
Chapter 2 Rainwater Analysis	45	(28)
2.1 Acid Rain	45	(7)
2.1.1 Causes of Acid Rain	48	(2)
2.1.2 Effects of Acid Rain	50	(2)
2.1.3 Control of Acid Rain	52	(1)
2.2 Sampling and Analysis	52	(3)
2.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation	55	(4)
Questions and Problems	57	(2)
2.4 pH, Conductivity, and Major Anions	59	(6)
2.4.1 Methodology	59	(1)
2.4.2 Bottle Preparation	59	(1)
2.4.3 Sampling	60	(1)
2.4.4 Conductivity	61	(1)
2.4.5 pH	62	(1)
2.4.6 Ion Chromatography (Chloride, Nitrate, and Sulfate)	63	(2)
2.5 Major Cations	65	(3)
2.5.1 Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals (Na, K, Mg, and Ca)	65	(2)
2.5.2 Ammonium	67	(1)
2.6 Heavy Metals	68	(1)
Exercises and Information	68	(4)
Questions and Problems	68	(3)
Suggestions for Projects	71	(1)
References	72	(1)
Further Reading	72	(1)
Chapter 3 Air Analysis	73	(62)
3.1 Introduction	73	(18)
3.1.1 The Atmosphere	73	(1)
3.1.2 Air Pollution	74	(2)
3.1.3 Urban Smog	76	(6)
3.1.4 Haze	82	(1)
3.1.5 Indoor Air Pollution	83	(1)
3.1.6 Control of Air Pollution	84	(1)
3.1.7 Concentration Units	85	(1)
3.1.8 Measurement of Air Pollution	86	(1)
3.1.9 Reporting Air Quality	87	(2)
Questions and Problems	89	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	90	(1)
3.2 Sampling	91	(6)
3.2.1 Introduction	91	(1)
3.2.2 Absorption Train	92	(1)
3.2.3 Impregnated Filters	93	(1)
3.2.4 Diffusion Tubes	94	(1)
3.2.5 Denuder Tubes	94	(1)
3.2.6 Solid Adsorbents	95	(1)
3.2.7 Indicator Tubes	95	(1)
3.2.8 Cryogenic Trapping	96	(1)
3.2.9 Grab Sampling	96	(1)
3.2.10 Aerosol Sampling	96	(1)
Questions and Problems	97	(1)
3.3 Sulfur Dioxide	97	(8)
3.3.1 Introduction	97	(3)
3.3.2 Methodology	100	(1)
3.3.3 Materials	100	(1)
3.3.4 Experimental Procedure	101	(3)
Questions and Problems	104	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	105	(1)
3.4 Nitrogen Dioxide	105	(4)
3.4.1 Introduction	105	(1)
3.4.2 Methodology	106	(1)
3.4.3 Materials	107	(1)
3.4.4 Experimental Procedure	107	(1)
Questions and Problems	108	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	109	(1)
3.5 Ozone	109	(4)
3.5.1 Introduction	109	(2)
3.5.2 Methodology	111	(1)
3.5.3 Materials	111	(1)
3.5.4 Experimental Procedure	111	(2)
Questions and Problems	113	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	113	(1)
3.6 Ammonia	113	(4)
3.6.1 Introduction	113	(1)
3.6.2 Methodology	114	(1)
3.6.3 Materials	114	(1)
3.6.4 Experimental Procedure	114	(2)
Questions and Problems	116	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	116	(1)
3.7 Hydrogen Chloride	117	(4)
3.7.1 Introduction	117	(1)
3.7.2 Methodology	118	(1)
3.7.3 Materials	118	(1)
3.7.4 Experimental Procedure	119	(1)
Questions and Problems	120	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	121	(1)
3.8 Atmospheric Aerosol: Heavy Metals and Major Constituents	121	(14)
3.8.1 Introduction	121	(2)
3.8.2 Sampling and Analysis	123	(3)
3.8.3 Sampling Procedure and Mass Determination	126	(1)
3.8.4 Heavy Metals	127	(2)
3.8.5 Major Components	129	(2)
Questions and Problems	131	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	131	(1)
References	132	(1)
Further Reading	132	(3)
Chapter 4 Water Analysis	135	(131)
4.1 Introduction	135	(19)
4.1.1 The Hydrosphere	135	(1)
4.1.2 Water Pollution	136	(2)
4.1.3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand	138	(1)
4.1.4 Eutrophication	138	(1)
4.1.5 Acidification	139	(1)
4.1.6 Salinity	140	(1)
4.1.7 Coastal Pollution	141	(2)
4.1.8 Groundwater Pollution	143	(1)
4.1.9 Wastewater Treatment	144	(2)
4.1.10 Potable Water Treatment	146	(1)
4.1.11 Water Analysis	147	(2)
4.1.12 Sampling and Storage	149	(2)
4.1.13 Filtration	151	(1)
Questions and Problems	152	(1)
Suggestions for Project	153	(1)
4.2 Solids in Waters	154	(8)
4.2.1 Introduction	154	(1)
4.2.2 Methodology	155	(2)
4.2.3 Total Solids	157	(1)
4.2.4 Total Dissolved Solids	157	(1)
4.2.5 Suspended Solids	158	(1)
4.2.6 Fixed and Volatile Solids	159	(1)
4.2.7 Settleable Solids	160	(1)
Questions and Problems	161	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	161	(1)
4.3 Electrochemical Measurements	162	(8)
4.3.1 pH	162	(2)
4.3.2 Conductivity	164	(1)
4.3.3 Redox Potential	165	(4)
Questions and Problems	169	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	170	(1)
4.4 Hardness	170	(5)
4.4.1 Introduction	170	(1)
4.4.2 Methodology	171	(1)
4.4.3 Materials	172	(1)
4.4.4 Experimental Procedure	173	(1)
Questions and Problems	174	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	174	(1)
4.5 Alkalinity	175	(7)
4.5.1 Introduction	175	(1)
4.5.2 Methodology	176	(1)
4.5.3 Materials	177	(1)
4.5.4 Experimental Procedure	177	(4)
Questions and Problems	181	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	181	(1)
4.6 Dissolved Oxygen	182	(7)
4.6.1 Introduction	182	(3)
4.6.2 Methodology	185	(1)
4.6.3 Materials	186	(1)
4.6.4 Experimental Procedure	186	(2)
Questions and Problems	188	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	188	(1)
4.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand	189	(7)
4.7.1 Introduction	189	(3)
4.7.2 Methodology	192	(1)
4.7.3 Materials	193	(1)
4.7.4 Experimental Procedure	193	(2)
Questions and Problems	195	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	196	(1)
4.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand	196	(7)
4.8.1 Introduction	196	(3)
4.8.2 Methodology	199	(1)
4.8.3 Materials	199	(1)
4.8.4 Experimental Procedure	200	(2)
Questions and Problems	202	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	203	(1)
4.9 Chlorophyll	203	(5)
4.9.1 Introduction	203	(1)
4.9.2 Methodology	204	(1)
4.9.3 Materials	204	(1)
4.9.4 Experimental Procedure	205	(2)
Questions and Problems	207	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	207	(1)
4.10 Nitrogen	208	(17)
4.10.1 Introduction	208	(1)
4.10.2 Ammonia	209	(6)
4.10.3 Nitrate	215	(5)
4.10.4 Nitrite	220	(2)
4.10.5 Organic Nitrogen	222	(2)
Questions and Problems	224	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	225	(1)
4.11 Phosphorus	225	(9)
4.11.1 Introduction	225	(4)
4.11.2 Methodology	229	(3)
4.11.3 Orthophosphate
4.11.4 Condensed Phosphatff	232	(1)
4.11.5 Organic Phosphorus	233	(1)
Questions and Problems	233	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	234	(1)
4.12 Chloride	234	(3)
4.12.1 Introduction	234	(1)
4.12.2 Methodology	235	(1)
4.12.3 Materials	236	(1)
4.12.4 Experimental Procedure	236	(1)
Questions and Problems	237	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	237	(1)
4.13 Fluoride	237	(2)
4.13.1 Introduction	237	(1)
4.13.2 Methodology	238	(1)
4.13.3 Materials	238	(1)
4.13.4 Experimental Procedure	238	(1)
Questions and Problems	239	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	239	(1)
4.14 Sulfate	239	(4)
4.14.1 Introduction	239	(2)
4.14.2 Methodology	241	(1)
4.14.3 Materials	241	(1)
4.14.4 Experimental Procedure	241	(1)
Questions and Problems	242	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	243	(1)
4.15 Iron	243	(5)
4.15.1 Introduction	243	(1)
4.15.2 Methodology	244	(1)
4.15.3 Materials	245	(1)
4.15.4 Experimental Procedure	245	(2)
Questions and Problems	247	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	247	(1)
4.16 Heavy Metals	248	(11)
4.16.1 Introduction	248	(1)
4.16.2 Aluminium	249	(1)
4.16.3 Copper	250	(1)
4.16.4 Lead	250	(1)
4.16.5 Mercury	251	(1)
4.16.6 Tin	251	(1)
4.16.7 Analysis	252	(1)
4.16.8 Methodology	252	(1)
4.16.9 Materials	252	(1)
4.16.10 Experimental Procedure	253	(4)
Questions and Problems	257	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	258	(1)
4.17 Oil and Grease	259	(7)
4.17.1 Introduction	259	(1)
4.17.2 Methodology	260	(1)
4.17.3 Materials	260	(1)
4.17.4 Experimental Procedure	260	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	261	(1)
References	261	(1)
Further Reading	261	(5)
Chapter 5 Soil, Sediment, Sludge, and Dust Analysis	266	(97)
5.1 Introduction	266	(12)
5.1.1 The Pedosphere	266	(1)
5.1.2 Soil	267	(2)
5.1.3 Soil Pollution	269	(5)
5.1.4 Soil Remediation	274	(1)
5.1.5 Sewage Sludge	274	(2)
5.1.6 Sediment	276	(1)
5.1.7 Dust	277	(1)
5.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation	278	(6)
5.2.1 Sampling	278	(4)
5.2.2 Drying	282	(1)
5.2.3 Comminution	283	(1)
Questions and Problems	284	(1)
Suggestions for Project	284	(1)
5.3 Dissolution and Extraction	284	(10)
5.3.1 Fusion	287	(2)
5.3.2 Acid Digestion	289	(1)
5.3.3 Dissolution of Individual Elements	290	(2)
5.3.4 Extractions	292	(1)
Questions and Problems	293	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	294	(1)
5.4 Physical Parameters	294	(6)
5.4.1 Introduction	294	(1)
5.4.2 Bulk Density	295	(1)
5.4.3 Specific Gravity	296	(1)
5.4.4 Water Content	296	(1)
5.4.5 Loss-on-Ignition	297	(1)
5.4.6 Particle Size	298	(1)
Questions and Problems	299	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	300	(1)
5.5 Electrochemical Measurements	300	(7)
5.5.1 Introduction	300	(1)
5.5.2 Conductivity	301	(1)
5.5.3 pH	301	(2)
5.5.4 Redox Potential	303	(2)
Questions and Problems	305	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	306	(1)
5.6 Alkalinity	307	(2)
5.6.1 Introduction	307	(1)
5.6.2 Experimental Procedure	308	(1)
Questions and Problems	309	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	309	(1)
5.7 Soluble Ions	309	(3)
5.7.1 Introduction	309	(1)
5.7.2 Experimental Procedure	310	(1)
Questions and Problems	311	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	312	(1)
5.8 Organic Matter	312	(5)
5.8.1 Introduction	312	(1)
5.8.2 Methodology	313	(1)
5.8.3 Materials	313	(1)
5.8.4 Experimental Procedure	314	(2)
Questions and Problems	316	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	316	(1)
5.9 Nitrogen	317	(10)
5.9.1 Introduction	317	(1)
5.9.2 Organic Nitrogen	318	(2)
5.9.3 Exchangeable Ammonium	320	(1)
5.9.4 Extractable Nitrate	321	(2)
5.9.5 Extractable Nitrite	323	(1)
5.9.6 Mineralisable Nitrogen	323	(1)
5.9.7 Nitrogen-Mineralising Capacity	324	(2)
5.9.8 Ammonia–N in Fresh Sludge and Sediment Samples	326	(1)
Questions and Problems	326	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	326	(1)
5.10 Phosphorus	327	(5)
5.10.1 Introduction	327	(1)
5.10.2 Total Phosphorus, Total Organic Phosphorus, and Inorganic Phosphorus	328	(1)
5.10.3 Truog's Extraction	329	(1)
5.10.4 Olsen's Extraction	330	(1)
5.10.5 Acetic Acid Extraction	330	(1)
5.10.6 Water Extraction	331	(1)
5.10.7 Analysis	331	(1)
Questions and Problems	332	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	332	(1)
5.11 Sulfur	332	(2)
5.11.1 Introduction	332	(1)
5.11.2 Methodology	333	(1)
5.11.3 Experimental Procedure	333	(1)
5.12 Exchangeable Cations (Ca²+, Mg², K+, and Na+) and Cation Exchange Capacity	334	(5)
5.12.1 Introduction	334	(2)
5.12.2 Materials	336	(1)
5.12.3 Exchangeable Cations (Ca²+, Mg², K+, and Na+)	337	(1)
5.12.4 Cation Exchange Capacity	337	(1)
Questions and Problems	338	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	339	(1)
5.13 Heavy Metals	339	(24)
5.13.1 Introduction	339	(1)
5.13.2 Aluminium	340	(2)
5.13.3 Arsenic	342	(1)
5.13.4 Cadmium	342	(1)
5.13.5 Chromium	343	(1)
5.13.6 Lead	343	(3)
5.13.7 Manganese	346	(1)
5.13.8 Mercury	346	(1)
5.13.9 Nickel	346	(1)
5.13.10 Silicon	347	(1)
5.13.11 Zinc	347	(1)
5.13.12 Other Metals	348	(1)
5.13.13 Analysis	349	(1)
5.13.14 Methodology	349	(1)
5.13.15 Hydrofluoric Acid—Perchloric Acid Digestion	349	(1)
5.13.16 Nitric Acid Digestion	350	(1)
5.13.17 Aqua Regia Digestion	351	(1)
5.13.18 Nitric Acid—Hydrogen Peroxide Digestion	352	(1)
5.13.19 Cold Vapour Mercury Analysis	353	(3)
Questions and Problems	356	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	357	(1)
References	358	(1)
Further Reading	359	(4)
Chapter 6 Plant Analysis	363	(31)
6.1 Introduction	363	(8)
6.1.1 Plants and Pollution	366	(3)
6.1.2 Plant Analysis	369	(1)
Questions and Problems	370	(1)
6.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation	371	(4)
6.2.1 Plant Part	371	(1)
6.2.2 Time of Sampling	371	(2)
6.2.3 Methods of Sampling	373	(1)
6.2.4 Sample Preparation	373	(2)
Questions and Problems	375	(1)
Suggestions for Project	375	(1)
6.3 Digestion and Extraction	375	(4)
6.3.1 Introduction	375	(1)
6.3.2 Dry Ashing	376	(2)
6.3.3 Wet Ashing	378	(1)
Questions and Problems	379	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	379	(1)
6.4 Water Content and Ash Content	379	(2)
6.4.1 Water Content	379	(1)
6.4.2 Ash Content	380	(1)
6.4.3 Silica-Free Ash	380	(1)
Questions and Problems	381	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	381	(1)
6.5 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur	381	(2)
6.5.1 Introduction	381	(1)
6.5.2 Nitrogen	382	(1)
6.5.3 Phosphorus	382	(1)
6.5.4 Sulfur	382	(1)
Questions and Problems	383	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	383	(1)
6.6 Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, and Magnesium	383	(1)
6.6.1 Introduction	383	(1)
6.6.2 Experimental Procedure	384	(1)
Questions and Problems	384	(1)
Suggestions for Project	384	(1)
6.7 Nitrate and Nitrite	384	(3)
6.7.1 Introduction	384	(2)
6.7.2 Methodology	386	(1)
6.7.3 Experimental Procedure	386	(1)
Questions and Problems	387	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	387	(1)
6.8 Heavy Metals	387	(7)
6.8.1 Introduction	387	(3)
6.8.2 Methodology	390	(1)
6.8.3 Experimental Procedure	390	(1)
Questions and Problems	390	(1)
Suggestions for Projects	391	(1)
References	392	(1)
Further Reading	392	(2)
Appendix A Safety	394	(3)
Appendix B Laboratory Practice	397	(34)
Appendix C Environmental Standards	431	(14)
Appendix D Recommended Groundwater and Leachate Monitoring for Landfill Sites	445	(2)
Appendix E Statistical Tables	447	(2)
Appendix F Journals with Articles of Relevance to Environmental Analysis and Environmental Chemistry	449	(3)
Appendix G Some Useful Websites	452	(3)
Subject Index	455