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Offers a comprehensive, accessible introduction to experimental design, field monitoring skills for plants and animals, data analysis, interpretation and reporting
This user-friendly book presents field monitoring skills for both plants and animals, within the context of a research project. This text provides a single resource to take the reader all the way through from the planning stage, into the field, guiding through sampling, organism identification, computer-based data analysis and interpretation, and finally how to present the results to maximise the impact of the work. Logically structured throughout, and revised extensively in the second edition, the book concentrates on the techniques required to design a field-based ecological survey and shows how to execute an appropriate sampling regime. It evaluates appropriate sampling and analytical methods, identifying potential problems associated with various techniques and how to mitigate these.
The second edition of this popular text has updated reference material and weblinks, increased the number of case studies by 50% to illustrate the use of specific techniques in the field, added over 20% more figures (including 8 colour plates), and made more extensive use of footnotes to provide extra details. Extensions to topics covered in the first edition include additional discussion of: ethical issues; statistical methods (sample size estimation, use of the statistical package R, mixed models); bioindicators, especially for freshwater pollution; seeds, fecundity and population dynamics including static and dynamic life tables; forestry techniques including tree coring and tree mortality calculations; the use of data repositories; writing for a journal and producing poster and oral presentations. In addition, the use of new and emerging technologies has been a particular focus, including mobile apps for environmental monitoring and identification; land cover and GIS; the use of drones including legal frameworks and codes of practice; molecular field techniques including DNA analysis in the field (including eDNA); photo-matching for identifying individuals; camera trapping; modern techniques for detecting and analysing bat echolocation calls; and data storage using the cloud.
Divided into six distinct chapters, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition begins at project inception with a chapter on planning—covering health and safety, along with guidance on how to ensure that the sampling and experimental design is suitable for subsequent statistical analysis. Following a chapter dealing with site characterisation and general aspects of species identification, subsequent chapters describe the techniques used to survey and census particular groups of organisms. The final chapters cover analysing, interpreting and presenting data, and writing up the research.
Aimed at undergraduates taking courses in Ecology, Biology, Geography, and Environmental Science, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition will also benefit postgraduates seeking to support their projects.
C. PHILIP WHEATER, PHD, is Professor Emeritus in Environmental and Geographical Sciences at Manchester Metropolitan University. He has published widely in the fields of environmental science, environmental management, biogeography and ecology, including on plants, invertebrates, mammals, and amphibians.
PENNY A. COOK, PHD, is Professor in Public Health at the University of Salford, UK. She teaches statistical analysis, is a Statistical Editor of a peer-reviewed journal, and has published on greenspace, biodiversity and health and well-being, as well as on behavior and evolutionary ecology.
JAMES R. BELL, PHD, is Head of the Rothamsted Insect Survey, Rothamsted Research, UK. He has published widely on insect migration, climate change impacts on insects and the ecology of invertebrates. He has an interest in the analysis of large data sets as well as surveillance and monitoring technologies.
Dedication 13
Tables
Figures
Boxes
Case Studies
Preface to the second edition 14
Preface to the first edition 15
Acknowledgements 16
Chapter 1 – Preparation 19
Choosing a topic for study 20
Ecological research questions 22
Monitoring individual species and groups of species 22
Monitoring species richness 23
Monitoring population sizes and density 23
Monitoring community structure 24
Monitoring behaviour 24
A note of caution 25
Creating aims, objectives and hypotheses 27
Reviewing the literature 28
Primary literature 29
Secondary literature 29
Other sources of information 29
Search terms 30
Reading papers 30
Practical considerations 31
Legal aspects 31
Ethical issues 32
Health and safety issues 33
Implementation 35
Pilot studies 39
Time management 39
Statistical considerations in project design 42
Designing and setting up experiments and surveys 44
Choosing sampling methods 45
Types of data 45
Sampling designs 47
Planning statistical analysis 54
Summary 59
Chapter 2 – Monitoring site characteristics 63
Site selection 63
Site characterisation 64
Habitat mapping 65
Examination of landscape scale 72
Measuring microclimatic variables 73
Monitoring substrates 79
Monitoring water 84
Other physical attributes 88
Measuring biological attributes 91
Identification 97
Chapter 3 – Sampling plants and other static organisms 103
Sampling techniques for static organisms 106
Seeds, fecundity and population dynamics 109
Quadrat sampling 110
Pin-frames 120
Transects 121
Distribution of static organisms 125
Forestry techniques 126
Chapter 4 – Sampling mobile organisms 134
General issues 134
Distribution of mobile organisms 138
Direct observation 138
Behaviour 139
Indirect methods 144
Capture techniques 144
Marking individuals 147
Radio-tracking 151
Population dynamics 152
Invertebrates 154
Direct observation 155
Indirect methods 157
Capture techniques 158
Marking individuals 160
Capturing aquatic invertebrates 164
Netting 166
Suction sampling 171
Benthic coring 171
Drags, dredges and grabs 172
Wet extraction 173
Artificial substrate samplers 174
Baited traps and refuges 175
Capturing soil-living invertebrates 177
Sieving 177
Floatation and phase-separation 178
Tullgren funnels and similar methods of dry extraction 179
Chemical extraction 182
Electrical extraction 183
Capturing ground-active invertebrates 184
Pitfall traps 184
Suction samplers 194
Emergence traps 196
Capturing invertebrates from plants 198
Pootering 200
Sweep netting 202
Beating 203
Fogging 204
Capturing airborne invertebrates 206
Sticky traps 209
Using attractants 210
Refuges 213
Flight interception (window and malaise) traps 214
Light traps 217
Rotary traps 226
Water (pan) traps 227
Fish 229
Direct observation 231
Indirect methods 232
Capture techniques 232
Marking individuals 237
Amphibians 239
Direct observation 241
Indirect methods 242
Capture techniques 243
Marking individuals 248
Reptiles 249
Direct observation 249
Indirect methods 250
Capture techniques 251
Marking individuals 256
Birds 258
Direct observation 260
Indirect methods 267
Capture techniques 270
Marking individuals 274
Mammals 276
Direct observation 277
Indirect methods 280
Capture techniques 288
Marking individuals 297
Chapter 5 – Analysing and interpreting information 298
Keys to tests 301
Exploring and describing data 306
Transforming and screening data 306
Spatial and temporal distributions 313
Population estimation techniques: densities and population sizes 314
Richness and diversity 319
Similarity, dissimilarity and distance coefficients 320
Recording descriptive statistics 322
Testing hypotheses using basic statistical tests and simple general linear models 322
Differences between samples 326
Relationships between variables 329
Associations between frequency distributions 334
More advanced general linear models for predictive analysis 336
Multiple regression 336
Analysis of covariance and multivariate analysis of variance 338
Discriminant function analysis 340
Generalized linear models 341
Extensions of the generalized linear model 345
Extensions of generalized linear models and GAMs into mixed-effects models 346
Statistical methods to examine pattern and structure in communities: classification, indicator species and ordination 347
Classification 348
Indicator species analysis 353
Ordination 355
Chapter 6 – Presenting information 367
Written reports 368
Title 369
Abstract 370
Acknowledgements 370
Contents 371
Introduction 371
Methods 372
Results 373
Discussion 378
References 379
Appendices 383
Archiving Data 383
Authors' Contributions 383
Writing style 384
Tense 386
Numbers 386
Abbreviations 388
Punctuation 389
Choice of font 391
Common mistakes 392
Computer files 393
Specific guidance for writing for a journal 394
Specific guidance for preparing a poster 397
Specific guidance for preparing an oral presentation 402
Summary 405
References 406
Appendix: Glossary of statistical terms 438
Index
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