A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

by Sommer, Robert; Sommer, Barbara

• ISBN13: 9780195142082
• ISBN10: 019514208X
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-08-16
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

The fifth edition of this popular research methods book emphasizes a hands-on, multimethod, interdisciplinary approach to behavioral research. In this book, research is seen not as a remote activity of a white-coat priesthood, but as an approach that can be used by people in many fields tosolve immediate problems and increase understanding of human behavior. Numerous examples from different nations are provided throughout.

Author Biography

Robert Sommer and Barbara Sommer teach psychology at the University of California, Davis

Table of Contents

Boxes	xvii
Preface	xix
Multimethod Approach	1	(12)
What Is Behavioral Research?	1	(1)
Theory and Research?	2	(1)
Validity and Reliability	3	(1)
Why Do Behavioral Research?	4	(1)
Specific Methods	5	(1)
Multimethod Approach	6	(3)
Knowledge Is Connected	7	(1)
Dealing with Reactivity	8	(1)
Pilot Study	9	(1)
Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Research	9	(1)
General Laws and Local Conditions	9	(1)
Practical Experience	10	(1)
Summary	11	(2)
Ethics in Behavioral Research	13	(17)
Protecting the Welfare of Research Participants	15	(4)
Outside Review	17	(1)
Confidentiality and Anonymity	17	(1)
Deception	18	(1)
Comment on Participant Risk	19	(1)
Issues of Scientific Misconduct	19	(2)
Psychologists' Code of Ethics	21	(5)
Anthropologists' and Sociologists' Code of Ethics	26	(1)
Local Procedures	27	(1)
Summary	27	(3)
Search the Technical Literature	30	(17)
Using a College Library	31	(1)
Source Credibility	31	(4)
Scientific Journal Articles	33	(1)
Books of Readings	33	(1)
Books	33	(1)
Mass Media	33	(1)
Internet	34	(1)
What to Look for in a Research Article	35	(1)
Finding References	35	(2)
How Far to Search?	37	(1)
Meta-Analysis	38	(1)
Searching the World Wide Web	38	(4)
Electronic Newsletters, Journals, Abstracts, and Reports	42	(1)
What to Save from the Search	42	(1)
Getting Your Hands on the Materials	43	(1)
Interlibrary Loan	44	(1)
Additional Resources	44	(1)
Citation Search	44	(1)
Direct Consultation	44	(1)
Summary	45	(2)
Observation	47	(16)
Casual Observation	48	(2)
Systematic Observation	50	(4)
How to Be a Good Observer	51	(3)
Reliability in Systematic Observation	54	(1)
Video Recording	54	(1)
Qualitative Approaches	55	(5)
Participant Observation	55	(1)
Ethnography	56	(1)
Doing Qualitative Observation	57	(1)
Stresses on the Observer	58	(1)
Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research	59	(1)
Equipment	60	(1)
Limitations	60	(1)
Summary	61	(2)
Mapping and Trace Measures	63	(19)
Mapping	63	(12)
Behavioral Maps	63	(1)
Place-centered Maps	64	(3)
Individual-centered Map	67	(5)
Limitations	72	(1)
Cognitive Maps	73	(1)
Limitations	74	(1)
Trace Measures	75	(4)
Limitations	79	(1)
Summary	79	(3)
Experimentation	82	(21)
The Special Nature of the Experiment	83	(2)
Variables	85	(1)
Independent and Dependent Variables	85	(1)
Variables in Experiments	86	(1)
Generating Hypotheses	86	(2)
Operational Definitions	86	(1)
Example: Dressing for Success	87	(1)
Experimental Control	88	(5)
Eliminating or Holding Extraneous Variables Constant	88	(1)
Subjects	88	(1)
Experimenter	89	(1)
Setting	89	(1)
Apparatus	90	(1)
Procedure	90	(1)
Measurement of Extraneous Variables	91	(1)
Using a Control Group	91	(1)
Using Subjects as Their Own Controls	92	(1)
Limitations of Repeated Measures Designs	92	(1)
Doing an Experiment	93	(1)
Getting Ideas	93	(1)
Designing and Running an Experiment	93	(1)
Types of Experiments	93	(5)
True Experiments	94	(1)
Quasi-experiments	95	(2)
Single-subject Experiments	97	(1)
Equipment	98	(1)
Using the Internet	99	(2)
Limitations	101	(1)
Summary	101	(2)
Simulation	103	(8)
What Is a Simulation?	104	(1)
Environmental Simulations	104	(1)
Games	105	(2)
Role-playing Exercises	107	(1)
General Comments	108	(1)
Limitations	108	(1)
Summary	109	(2)
Interview	111	(24)
Uses and Types of Interviews	113	(3)
Unstructured Interviews	114	(1)
Structured Interviews	115	(1)
Semistructured Interviews	115	(1)
Telephone Interviews	116	(1)
How to Interview	116	(12)
Deciding What to Ask	117	(2)
Obtaining Permission	119	(1)
Street Corner Interviews	120	(1)
Setting the Stage	121	(1)
Nonverbal Aspects	122	(1)
Pacing and Timing	123	(1)
Probes	124	(1)
Recording the Information	124	(2)
Minimizing Sources of Error	126	(1)
Tact and Diplomacy	127	(1)
Ending the Interview	127	(1)
Analyzing the Results	128	(1)
Coding	128	(1)
Reporting Interview Results	129	(1)
Limitations	129	(2)
Focus Groups	131	(1)
Strengths and Limitations	132	(1)
Summary	132	(3)
The Questionnaire	135	(24)
Questionnaire Construction	136	(8)
Content	136	(1)
Format	137	(1)
Open-ended and Closed Questions	137	(1)
Ranking versus Rating	138	(1)
Matrix Questions	139	(1)
Measuring the Middle Position	140	(1)
Combining Question Types	140	(1)
Number of Questions	141	(1)
Wording Your Questions	141	(1)
Balance	142	(1)
Layout	143	(1)
Introductory Statement	143	(1)
Question Order	143	(1)
Answer Format	144	(1)
Closing Statement	144	(1)
Pretesting	144	(2)
Reproducing the Questionnaire	146	(1)
Distributing the Forms	146	(1)
Group Meetings	147	(1)
Individual Distribution	147	(1)
Mail Surveys	147	(4)
Cover Letter	148	(1)
Increasing Return Rates	149	(2)
Scoring	151	(1)
Interpretation	152	(2)
Describing Survey Results	154	(1)
Comparison of Interviews and Self-administered Questionnaires	155	(1)
Internet Surveys	155	(1)
Limitations	156	(1)
Summary	157	(2)
Attitude and Rating Scales	159	(18)
What Is a Scale?	159	(1)
Rating Scales	160	(1)
Limitations	160	(1)
Levels of Measurement	160	(2)
Attitude Scales	162	(3)
Likert-type Scale	162	(1)
Construction	162	(1)
Initial Administration and Scoring	163	(1)
Selecting the Final Items	163	(1)
Validity and Reliability	164	(1)
Limitations	165	(1)
Semantic Differential	165	(4)
Selection of Terms	166	(1)
Length and Layout	167	(1)
Scoring	168	(1)
Limitations	169	(1)
Performance Rating Scales	169	(1)
Limitations	170	(1)
Consumer Rating Scales	170	(2)
Limitations	172	(1)
Sensory Evaluation	172	(2)
Limitations	174	(1)
Summary	174	(3)
Content Analysis	177	(11)
Quantification in Content Analysis	177	(1)
Uses	178	(2)
Finding Categories	180	(3)
Sampling	183	(1)
Sampling Print Media	183	(1)
Sampling Other Media	184	(1)
Analyzing Recorded Data	184	(1)
Reliability	185	(1)
Limitations	185	(1)
Summary	186	(2)
Personal Documents and Archival Measures	188	(14)
Personal Documents	188	(6)
Research Diaries	189	(1)
Activity Log	190	(1)
Personal Diaries and Journals	191	(2)
Letters	193	(1)
Artwork	193	(1)
Limitations	194	(1)
Life Histories	194	(3)
Autobiography	194	(1)
Biography	195	(1)
General Comments	196	(1)
Limitations	196	(1)
Archival Measures	197	(3)
Uses	197	(1)
Finding Data	198	(1)
Underreporting and Bias	199	(1)
Limitations	200	(1)
Summary	200	(2)
Case Study	202	(9)
Advantages of a Case Study	203	(1)
Choosing a Topic	204	(1)
Unusual Individuals	205	(1)
Obtaining Cooperation	206	(1)
Cross-verification	207	(2)
Observation	208	(1)
Trace Measures and Physical Artifacts	208	(1)
Public and Private Records	209	(1)
Limitations	209	(1)
Summary	209	(2)
Action Research	211	(7)
Trade-offs	212	(1)
Self-Survey	212	(1)
Other Techniques	212	(1)
Steps in Action Research	213	(2)
Why Action Research Is Different	215	(1)
Tower or Swamp?	216	(1)
Summary	216	(2)
The Big Fuzzies: Research on Difficult-to-Define Concepts	218	(6)
Positive Psychology	219	(1)
A Word on Qualitative Research	220	(1)
Summary	221	(3)
Standardized Tests and Inventories	224	(11)
What Is a Test?	224	(1)
Test Reliability and Validity	225	(1)
Using Tests and Inventories	226	(2)
Locating Suitable Tests	228	(1)
Obtaining the Tests	229	(1)
Constructing a Test	230	(2)
Projective Tests	232	(1)
Limitations	232	(1)
Summary	233	(2)
Sampling	235	(10)
Types of Samples	236	(4)
Probability Sampling	236	(1)
Random Sample	236	(1)
Stratified Sample	237	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	238	(1)
Quota Sample	238	(1)
Purposive Sample	238	(1)
Convenience Sample	239	(1)
Generalization from Probability and Nonprobability Samples	239	(1)
How Large a Sample?	240	(1)
Gaining Access	241	(1)
Measuring Nonrespondent Bias	241	(1)
Describing the Method of Sampling	242	(1)
Limitations	242	(1)
Summary	243	(2)
Descriptive Statistics	245	(16)
Descriptive Statistics for Categorical Measures	246	(1)
Descriptive Statistics for Continuous Measures	247	(6)
Measures of Central Tendency	249	(1)
Mean(M)	249	(1)
Median (Mdn)	249	(1)
Mode	250	(1)
Measures of Variability	250	(1)
Range	251	(1)
Standard Deviation (SD)	251	(2)
Figures	253	(3)
Types of Figures	254	(1)
Bar Graphs	254	(1)
Line Graphs	254	(1)
Pie Charts	255	(1)
Guidelines for Figures	255	(1)
Statistical Tabulations and Analyses	256	(2)
Calculators	256	(1)
Computers	257	(1)
Software for Data Analysis	257	(1)
Summary	258	(3)
Inferential Statistics	261	(29)
First, Some Background	262	(2)
Testing the Null Hypothesis	263	(1)
Alternative Hypothesis	263	(1)
Probability Levels	264	(1)
Statistical Tests for Continuous Data	264	(10)
A Precondition	264	(2)
Comparing Two Groups---The t Test	266	(1)
t Ratio for Independent Groups	267	(1)
Interpreting the t Ratio	268	(1)
Hand Calculation	269	(1)
Understanding the Computer Printout	269	(1)
t Ratio for Paired Scores	269	(1)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)	269	(1)
One-way ANOVA	270	(1)
Hand Calculation	271	(1)
Understanding the Computer Printout	271	(1)
Locating the Differences	271	(1)
Advanced ANOVA Designs	271	(1)
ANOVA for Groups of Unequal Size	271	(1)
Factorial Design	272	(1)
Repeated Measures Design	273	(1)
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)	273	(1)
Multivariate Designs (MANOVA)	273	(1)
A Statistical Test for Categorical Data: Chi-square	274	(4)
Hand Calculation	274	(1)
Understanding the Computer Printout	274	(2)
Limitations of Chi-square	276	(2)
Correlation	278	(5)
Pearson Product-moment Coefficient (r)	279	(1)
Hand Calculation	280	(1)
Understanding the Computer Printout	280	(1)
Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)	280	(1)
Computing Ranks	281	(1)
Hand Calculation	281	(1)
Understanding the Computer Printout	281	(1)
Correlating a Continuous Variable with a Ranked Variable	282	(1)
Other Measures of Correlation	282	(1)
Presenting the Results of Statistical Tests	283	(1)
Effect Size	283	(1)
Limitations of This Chapter	284	(1)
Summary	284	(6)
Writing and Reviewing a Research Report	290	(15)
Article for a Scientific Journal	291	(8)
Title Page	291	(1)
Abstract	292	(1)
Introduction	292	(1)
Method	292	(1)
Participants	293	(1)
Apparatus/Materials	294	(1)
Setting	294	(1)
Procedure	294	(1)
Results	294	(1)
Tables and Figures	295	(2)
Discussion	297	(1)
References	297	(1)
Helpful Hints	297	(2)
Technical Reports	299	(2)
Executive Summary	300	(1)
Appendix	300	(1)
Writing a Critique	301	(3)
Need for Empathy	301	(3)
Summary	304	(1)
After The Report	305	(12)
Feedback to Participants	306	(1)
Further Research	306	(1)
Publishing the Findings	307	(2)
Research Journals	307	(1)
Choosing a Journal	308	(1)
Drafts	308	(1)
Dealing with Rejection	309	(1)
Preprints	309	(1)
Page Proofs	309	(1)
Reprints	309	(1)
Other Publication Outlets	309	(1)
Application	310	(2)
News Releases	312	(1)
Professional Meetings	312	(3)
Tips for Talks	313	(1)
Poster Sessions	314	(1)
Summary	315	(2)
Concluding Notes	317	(4)
Helpful Hints	317	(4)
APPENDIX A Critical Values	321	(7)
Table A-1. Critical Values for t Test	321	(1)
Table A-2. Critical Values for Chi-square Test	322	(1)
Table A-3. Critical Values for Pearson Product-moment Correlation Coefficient (r)	323	(1)
Table A-4. Critical Values for Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)	324	(1)
Table A-5. Abridged Table of Random Numbers	325	(1)
Table A-6. Critical Values of F	326	(2)
APPENDIX B Statistical Tests	328	(6)
Table B-1. Calculation of a t Test for Matched Scores	328	(1)
Table B-2. Calculation of a One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)	329	(2)
Table B-3. Computation of the Pearson Product-moment Coefficient (r)	331	(2)
Table B-4. Computation of the Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)	333	(1)
APPENDIX C Using Computer Software for Data Analysis	334	(6)
List Comparisons, Contrasts, and Correlations	335	(1)
Data Entry	335	(5)
Missing Data	336	(1)
Backup Copies	336	(1)
Data List	337	(1)
Data Analysis	337	(1)
Avoid Blind Analysis	338	(2)
APPENDIX D Example of a Manuscript Prepared According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association	340	(14)
APPENDIX E Example of Style Used for a Technical Report	354	(6)
Glossary	360	(11)
Name Index	371	(5)
Subject Index	376