Practical Radiation Protection in Healthcare

by Martin, Colin J.; Sutton, David G.

• ISBN13: 9780192630827
• ISBN10: 0192630822
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-11-07
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

Practical Radiation Protection in Healthcare is a practical guide for medical physicists and others whose work involves any aspect of hospital radiation protection. Written by workers experienced in the field, the book includes discussion of general radiation protection principles and provides detailed coverage of specialist topic areas involving both ionising and non-ionising radiations. The book provides guidance on methods that may be used to tackle the wide range of tasks that a physicist working in this area might encounter and should provide the first port of call when a problem in radiation protection is encountered. The book has been written in a format to allow easy reference, so that it can be used as a working guide as well as a textbook. Throughout, the emphasis is on a practical approach. The first half of the book covers general principles and topics applicable to all areas of radiation protection. The subject is dealt with in general terms, with descriptions of techniques and methods required to implement radiation protection measures. The chapters covering background material provide the basic knowledge which is important in understanding the subject. The second half of the book deals with practical guidance on the approach and techniques used in hospitals. The book contains comprehensive coverage of all areas that a radiation protection physicist would encounter. Each specialist area is covered in a separate chapter to allow easy reference with individual chapters being assigned to different types of non-ionising radiations. Qualified and trainee medical physicists, lecturers, radiographers, radiologists and those working with non-ionising radiation will find this an invaluable guide to field of radiation protection.

Author Biography

Colin J Martin is Head of Health Physics, Department of Clinical Physics and Bio-Engineering, North Glasgow University Hospitals NHS Trust David G Sutton is Head of Radiation Physics, Department of Medical Physics, Ninewells Hospital & Medical School, Dundee

Table of Contents

Contributors	xv
Abbreviations	xvii
List of Boxes	xxii
Part I Ionising radiations: hazards, detection, and measurement
The development of radiation protection	3	(10)
C. J. Martin
Historical perspective	3	(3)
Standards and legislation for protection against ionising radiations	6	(1)
Public perception of ionising radiation	7	(1)
Non-ionising radiations	7	(4)
Further reading	11	(2)
Interaction of ionising radiations with matter	13	(14)
C. J. Martin
Introduction	13	(1)
Radioactive decay	13	(1)
Electron interactions	13	(3)
Interactions of X-rays and γ-rays with matter	16	(4)
Practical implications of photon interactions	20	(2)
Neutrons	22	(1)
The radiation field and radiation dose	23	(2)
References	25	(2)
Biological effects of ionising radiation	27	(16)
J. W. Stather
H. Smith
Introduction	27	(1)
Cellular effects	27	(6)
Deterministic effects	33	(3)
Radiation-induced cancer	36	(3)
Radiation-induced hereditary disease	39	(1)
Irradiation in utero	40	(1)
Summary	41	(1)
References	42	(1)
Radiation measurements	43	(24)
S. Green
R. G. Zamenhof
Scope	43	(1)
Introduction	43	(1)
Quantities to be measured and traceability	43	(1)
Detector selection	44	(2)
Gas detectors	46	(1)
Ionisation chambers	47	(1)
Proportional counters	48	(1)
Geiger--Muller tubes	49	(2)
Scintillation detectors	51	(3)
Semiconductor detectors	54	(2)
General detector resolution issues for active detector systems	56	(1)
Passive measurement systems (film and TLD)	57	(5)
Issues in practical measurements	62	(1)
Annual instrument tests	62	(1)
References	62	(1)
Useful websites	63	(4)
Part II Protection against ionising radiations
Ionising radiation legislation	67	(12)
P. Allisy-Roberts
C. J. Martin
International basis for legislation	67	(2)
Foundation for European legislation	69	(2)
UK legislation in practice	71	(1)
European legislation in practice	72	(2)
Legislation in the Americas	74	(2)
Legislation in some other parts of the world	76	(1)
Conclusions	77	(1)
References	77	(2)
Principles and control methods	79	(10)
K. E. Goldstone
Introduction	79	(1)
Justification	79	(1)
Optimisation	80	(1)
Limitation	80	(1)
Dose limits	80	(2)
ALARA--as low as reasonably achievable	82	(1)
Dose constraints	83	(1)
Risk assessment	84	(2)
Designation of areas	86	(1)
Classification of employees	86	(1)
Special staff groups	87	(1)
Outside workers	87	(1)
References	87	(2)
Operational radiation protection	89	(16)
D. G. Sutton
Introduction	89	(1)
Establishing a framework for radiation protection	89	(4)
Protection against external radiation	93	(1)
Practical control measures for external radiation	94	(7)
Protection against internal radiation	101	(2)
References	103	(2)
Personal monitoring	105	(18)
D. H. Temperton
Theory and units	105	(2)
Requirements for personal dosimetry services	107	(2)
Whole-body (external) monitoring	109	(7)
Extremity and eye monitoring	116	(1)
Monitoring for internal exposure	117	(3)
Results	120	(1)
References	120	(3)
Control of radioactive substances	123	(26)
C. J. Martin
E. M. Pitcher
Introduction	123	(1)
Registration of sources	123	(3)
Radioactive waste	126	(7)
Radiological impact of waste disposal	133	(7)
Transport of radioactive materials	140	(5)
Medical administration of radioactive substances	145	(1)
References	146	(3)
Intervention, incidents, and emergencies	149	(24)
A. R. Denman
Introduction	149	(1)
Natural background radiation	150	(2)
Radon	152	(6)
Artificial sources and potential incidents	158	(3)
Dealing with radiation incidents	161	(2)
Major nuclear radiation emergencies	163	(4)
Release of radioactivity	167	(2)
References	169	(4)
Part III Ionising radiations in medicine and research
Risk control in medical exposures	173	(16)
C. J. Martin
D. G. Sutton
P. J. Mountford
A. P. Hufton
Benefit versus risk	173	(1)
Doses from medical exposures	173	(2)
Risks from medical exposures	175	(5)
Justification of exposures	180	(2)
Optimisation	182	(1)
Explanation of risk	183	(5)
References	188	(1)
Diagnostic radiology: equipment	189	(18)
J. R. Williams
Introduction	189	(1)
Patient dose and image quality	189	(2)
Factors influencing patient dose and image quality	191	(4)
Factors influencing staff dose	195	(2)
Specification of equipment	197	(1)
Equipment testing	198	(7)
References	205	(2)
Diagnostic radiology: facility	207	(14)
G. Hart
D. G. Sutton
C. J. Martin
Introduction	207	(1)
X-ray room design	207	(3)
Room shielding	210	(4)
Protection assessments for specific installations	214	(4)
Personnel radiation protection	218	(1)
References	219	(2)
Diagnostic radiology: patient dosimetry	221	(22)
A. P. Hufton
Introduction	221	(1)
Dose quantities	221	(1)
Requirements for patient dose estimation	222	(2)
Dosimetry techniques using patients and phantoms	224	(1)
Radiation measurements	225	(4)
Dose calculation	229	(1)
Dosimetry in radiography and fluoroscopy	230	(2)
Computed tomography	232	(3)
Specialist radiographic techniques	235	(3)
Bone mineral densitometry	238	(2)
Pregnancy and the estimation of fetal dose	240	(1)
References	240	(3)
Nuclear medicine and radionuclide laboratories	243	(22)
S. Batchelor
Nuclides used in nuclear medicine and radionuclide laboratories	243	(1)
Guidance on the degree of the hazard from the use of unsealed radioactive sources	244	(1)
Design of rooms for using unsealed radioactive sources	244	(2)
Radiation protection requirements in nuclear medicine	246	(4)
Special considerations in PET departments	250	(2)
Radiation protection requirements for a radionuclide laboratory	252	(2)
Personnel monitoring	254	(1)
Monitoring for contamination	255	(2)
Spills and decontamination	257	(3)
Decontamination of personnel	260	(1)
Radioactive waste management	261	(1)
Pregnancy and work with radionuclides	262	(1)
References	263	(2)
The nuclear medicine patient	265	(22)
P. J. Mountford
Introduction	265	(1)
Internal dosimetry	265	(3)
External dosimetry	268	(2)
Patient safety	270	(2)
Pregnant and breastfeeding patients	272	(4)
Paediatric patients	276	(1)
The hospital environment	276	(4)
Discharge from hospital	280	(4)
Summary	284	(1)
References	284	(3)
Radiotherapy: external beam therapy	287	(20)
R. M. Harrison
G. D. Lambert
Radiotherapy in perspective	287	(1)
General objectives	287	(2)
Megavoltage and 60Co equipment	289	(2)
Megavoltage and 60Co room design	291	(9)
Protection for kilovoltage facilities	300	(1)
Interlocks and warning systems	301	(1)
Environmental monitoring	301	(1)
Useful data	302	(3)
References	305	(2)
Radiotherapy: brachytherapy	307	(22)
J. M. Parry
T. Kehoe
D. G. Sutton
Introduction	307	(1)
Sealed-source therapy: manual insertions	308	(5)
Sealed-source therapy: remote afterloading units	313	(1)
Therapy with unsealed sources	314	(1)
Treatment room design and controls	315	(7)
Sealed-source laboratory: design and storage of sources	322	(1)
Record keeping	322	(1)
Contingency plans	323	(2)
References	325	(4)
Part IV Non-ionising radiations
Lasers	329	(22)
H. Moseley
Introduction	329	(1)
Laser--tissue interactions	329	(4)
Risks	333	(1)
Direct effects	333	(4)
Indirect effects	337	(1)
Patient protection	338	(1)
Legislation, standards, and guidance	339	(1)
Equipment features	340	(1)
Laser safety management	341	(5)
Personal protection	346	(1)
Exposure incidents	347	(1)
References	348	(3)
Non-coherent optical radiation sources	351	(18)
D. K. Taylor
Introduction	351	(1)
Effects of optical radiation on tissues	352	(1)
Short- and long-term reactions	353	(1)
Techniques for optical radiation measurement	354	(4)
Calibration of detectors	358	(2)
Evaluation of ultraviolet optical hazards	360	(2)
Evaluation of visible radiation optical hazards	362	(1)
Practical radiation protection considerations	363	(2)
Protecting the skin against optical radiations	365	(1)
Protecting eyes against UV	365	(1)
References	366	(1)
Further reading	367	(2)
Electromagnetic fields	369	(24)
J. W. Hand
Introduction	369	(2)
EM fields and sources	371	(1)
Interaction between EM fields and biological materials	372	(1)
Monitoring for ELF fields	373	(1)
Instrumentation for RF and microwaves	374	(3)
EM field dosimetry	377	(2)
EM field protection guides	379	(4)
Safety guidelines for magnetic resonance	383	(3)
Safety of diathermy/hyperthermia devices	386	(2)
Electromagnetic interference with medical equipment	388	(2)
References	390	(3)
Ultrasound	393	(16)
S. D. Pye
B. Zeqiri
Introduction	393	(1)
The ultrasound field	393	(3)
Bioeffects	396	(3)
Measurement devices	399	(1)
Diagnostic ultrasound	400	(2)
Therapy ultrasound	402	(2)
Lithotripsy	404	(2)
Surgical ultrasound	406	(1)
Conclusion	406	(1)
References	407	(1)
Further reading	407	(1)
Organizations	407	(2)
Index	409