The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology, 9th Edition

by David M. Smith (Emeritus, Yale Univ.); Bruce C. Larson (Yale Univ.); Matthew J. Kelty (Univ. of Massachusetts); P. Mark S. Ashton (Yale Univ.)

• ISBN13: 9780471109419
• ISBN10: 047110941X
• Edition: 9th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1996-10-01
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

This is the premier source of ecologically and econimically sound information on the long-term treatment of forests. It provides the information necessary to understand, analyze, and apply the various techniques available for growing stands under any circumstances. It emphasizes the development of techniques so professionals are able to invent silvicultural solutions to problems.

Author Biography

David M. Smith is Professor of Geography at Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London. His books include Industrial Location: An Economic Geographical Analysis, Human Geography: A Welfare Approach, and Geography, Inequality and Society. He is also co-editor of The Dictionary of Human Geography.

Table of Contents

PART 1 Introduction to Silviculture
Silviculture and its Place in Forestry	3	(17)
The Purpose of Silviculture	4	(5)
Improving on Nature Through Silviculture	4	(1)
Control of Stand Structure and Process	5	(1)
Control of Composition	5	(2)
Control of Stand Density	7	(1)
Restocking of Unproductive Areas	7	(1)
Protection and Reduction of Losses	7	(1)
Control of Rotation Length	8	(1)
Facilitating Harvesting	8	(1)
Conservation of Site Productivity	8	(1)
Silviculture as Applied Ecology	9	(1)
Ecological Technology	10	(1)
Relationship with Forest Management and the Social Sciences	11	(1)
The Stand and the Forest	11	(1)
Scope and Terminology of Silvicultural Practice	12	(2)
Kinds of Stands	12	(1)
Kinds of Silvicultural Treatments	13	(1)
Role of Cutting in Silviculture	14	(1)
Effect of Cutting on Growing Stock	15	(1)
Silviculture and the Long-Term Economic Viewpoint	15	(1)
Variations in Intensity of Practice	16	(1)
Silviculture in Application	17	(1)
Silvicultural Literature	18	(2)
Stand Dynamics	20	(27)
Initiating Disturbances and Sources of Regeneration	20	(2)
Cohorts and Age Classes	22	(1)
Identification of Age Classes	23	(2)
Stages of Stand Development	25	(2)
Pure, Even-Aged, Single-Canopied Stands	27	(3)
Double-Cohort Stands	30	(1)
Pure, Uneven-Aged or Multicohort Stands	30	(1)
Mixed Single-Canopied Stands	31	(1)
Single-Cohort Stratified Mixtures	32	(4)
Mixed, Multicohort Stands	36	(1)
Relationship to Other Interpretations of Vegetational Development	36	(4)
The Ecosystem Concept	38	(2)
Choice of Developmental Patterns	40	(7)
PART 2 Tending and Intermediate Cutting
The Response of Individual Trees to Thinning and Pruning	47	(22)
Response of Trees to Increased Growing Space	47	(10)
Priorities in Allocation of Carbohydrates	48	(1)
Stem Form	49	(2)
Tree Growth as a Guide to Thinning	51	(2)
Biological Basis for Quantifying Tree Development	53	(1)
Effect on Wood Quality	54	(1)
Growth Rate---Not a Causative Factor	55	(1)
Controlling Wood Properties by Thinning	56	(1)
Pruning	57	(12)
Natural Pruning	58	(1)
Knots	59	(2)
Artificial Pruning	61	(1)
Pruning for Timber Production	62	(4)
Pruning of Ornamental Trees	66	(1)
Shearing and Pruning of Christmas Trees	67	(2)
Management of Growth and Stand Yield by Thinning	69	(30)
Forest Productivity	69	(4)
Stand Development and Productivity	70	(2)
Quantification of Production	72	(1)
Analysis of Increment	73	(4)
Parameters of Stand Density or Stocking	75	(2)
Relationships Between Numbers and Sizes of Trees	77	(4)
Modeling Growth and Yield	79	(2)
Thinning and its Objectives	81	(6)
Quantifying Objectives	82	(2)
The Effect of Thinning on Stand Production	84	(3)
The Effect of Thinning on the Economic Yield of Stands	87	(6)
Salvage of Anticipated Losses	87	(1)
Increase in Value from Improved Diameter Growth	88	(3)
Yield of Income and Control of Investment in Growing Stock During Rotation	91	(1)
Improvement of Product Quality	92	(1)
Control of Stand Composition and Effects on Regeneration	92	(1)
Reducing Risk	93	(1)
Additional Ideas on Growth and Productivity	93	(6)
Interspecific Variations in Production	93	(6)
Methods and Application of Thinning	99	(32)
Methods of Thinning	99	(18)
Low Thinning	99	(3)
Crown Thinning	102	(3)
Applications of Crown Thinning	105	(2)
Selection Thinning or Thinning of Dominants	107	(1)
Different Forms of Selection Thinning	108	(3)
Problems with Selection Thinning	111	(1)
Geometric Thinning	112	(1)
Row and Strip Thinning	113	(2)
Potential Problems	115	(1)
Free Thinning	116	(1)
Quantitative Definition of Thinning Methods	116	(1)
Thinning Schedules	117	(12)
Choosing Methods of Thinning	117	(3)
Timing of the First Thinning	120	(1)
Precommercial Thinning	121	(1)
Effect of Stand Structure	122	(1)
Timing of Subsequent Thinnings	122	(2)
Regulation of Stand Density and Thinning Intensity	124	(1)
Tree-Spacing Guide	125	(1)
Taper Guide	126	(1)
Thinning Guides Based on Crown Expansion	127	(1)
Formulation of Thinning Schedules	127	(2)
Relation to Forest Uses Other than Timber Production	129	(1)
Conclusion	129	(2)
Release Operations and Herbicides	131	(30)
Killing Vegetation in Place	132	(1)
Tactics	132	(1)
Cutting Small Trees and Shrubs	133	(1)
Herbicides	133	(14)
Toxicity of Herbicides and Other Pesticides	133	(1)
Registration of Herbicides	134	(1)
Quantitative Toxicology	134	(2)
Fate of Herbicides	136	(1)
Modes of Entry and Movement of Herbicides in Woody Plants	137	(1)
Penetration	137	(1)
Translocation	137	(1)
Formulation of Herbicides	138	(1)
Methods of Applying Herbicides	139	(1)
Stem Injection	139	(1)
Stump-Surface Treatment	140	(1)
Basal Bark Treatment	140	(1)
Soil Application	141	(1)
Foliage Application	141	(3)
Herbicide Compounds	144	(1)
Chlorophenoxy Herbicides	144	(1)
Other Auxin Herbicides	145	(1)
Triazine Herbicides	146	(1)
Phosphonalkyl Compounds	146	(1)
Imidazolinone	146	(1)
Cleaning	147	(4)
Types of Vegetation Removed	147	(1)
Timing of Cleanings	148	(2)
Extent of Release in Cleaning	150	(1)
Liberation Operations	151	(3)
Methods of Liberation	151	(1)
Cutting	152	(1)
Girdling	152	(2)
Application of Release Operations	154	(7)
PART 3 Regeneration
Ecology of Regeneration	161	(34)
Ecological Role of Natural Disturbance	161	(1)
Introduction	161	(1)
Kinds of Natural Regenerative Disturbances	162	(5)
Severe Disturbances	163	(1)
Releasing Disturbances	164	(1)
Patterns in Floristics in Relation to Disturbance	164	(1)
The Role of Fire as a Disturbance	164	(3)
Disturbance and the Environment of the Microsite	167	(5)
Water Loss	168	(1)
Surface Temperature and Energy Transfers	168	(3)
Light	171	(1)
The Regeneration Process	172	(1)
Mechanisms of Essential Stages of Natural Regeneration	172	(12)
Flowering	172	(5)
Seed Supply	177	(1)
Seed Dispersal	177	(3)
Storage	180	(1)
Germination	180	(1)
Succulent Stage	181	(1)
Growth and Establishment	182	(2)
Provisions for Initiating Natural Regeneration	184	(5)
Regulation of Regenerative Canopy Openings	184	(4)
Regulation of the Groundstory	188	(1)
Regeneration Methods as Analogs to Natural Disturbance	189	(6)
Preparation and Treatment of the Site	195	(39)
Disposal of Logging Slash	196	(11)
Effects of Slash on the Future Stand	196	(1)
Slash in Relation to Forest Fires	196	(1)
Effect of Slash on Reproduction	197	(1)
Management of Slash, Litter, and Soil	197	(1)
Effects of Burning on Nutrients and Soil	198	(1)
Effects of Removing Organic Materials	199	(2)
Effects of Burning Forest Fuels on the Air	201	(1)
Slash in Relation to Insects and Fungi	202	(1)
Slash in Relation to Harvesting Operations	202	(1)
Slash in Relation to Aesthetics and Wildlife	203	(1)
Methods and Application of Slash Disposal	203	(1)
Broadcast Burning of Slash	203	(1)
Spot Burning	204	(1)
Burning of Piled Slash	205	(1)
Lopping and Scattering of Slash	206	(1)
Direct Control of Bark Beetles in Slash	206	(1)
Chipping and Yarding of Slash	206	(1)
Treatment of the Forest Floor and Competing Vegetation	207	(17)
Seedbed Preparation	207	(1)
Competing Vegetation	207	(2)
Techniques of Treatment	209	(1)
Prescribed Burning	210	(1)
Purposes and Effect of Prescribed Burning	210	(2)
Potential Damage from Prescribed Burning	212	(1)
Methods of Prescribed Burning	213	(1)
Application of Prescribed Burning	214	(3)
Mechanical Treatments	217	(3)
Limitations of Mechanical Treatments	220	(2)
Herbicide Treatments	222	(2)
Flooding	224	(1)
Improvement of Site	224	(10)
Fertilization	224	(2)
Drainage	226	(2)
Irrigation	228	(1)
Protection	229	(5)
Site Classification and Species Selection	234	(30)
Methods of Identifying and Classifying Sites	235	(12)
Nature of Site or Habitat	235	(1)
The Use of Site Analysis in Silviculture	236	(3)
Use of Tree Growth As an Indicator of Site Quality	239	(3)
Understory Plant Indicators and Habitat Types	242	(1)
Analysis of Soils and Topography	243	(2)
Ecological Site Classification	245	(2)
Selection of Species and Provenances	247	(9)
Adaptation to Site	247	(1)
Utility of Species for Different Objectives	248	(4)
Selection of Provenances	252	(1)
Exotic Species	253	(2)
Problems with the Use of Exotic Species	255	(1)
Genetic Improvement	256	(8)
Procedures in Tree Improvement Programs	256	(2)
Hybrids	258	(1)
Vegetation Multiplication and Tissue Culture	259	(1)
Use of Genetic Improvement	259	(1)
Conservation of Genetic Resources	260	(1)
Genetic Improvement with Natural Regeneration	261	(3)
Artificial Regeneration	264	(37)
Planting	264	(23)
Kinds of Planting Stock	265	(1)
Size of Plants	265	(2)
Bare-rooted Seedlings	267	(1)
Classification of Nursery Stock	268	(1)
Transportation and Storage of Bare-root Seedlings	268	(1)
Care of Planting Stock in the Field	269	(1)
Containerized Seedlings	269	(1)
Kinds of Containers and Their Characteristics	270	(2)
Handling of Containerized Seedlings	272	(1)
Vegetative Propagation of Planting Stock	272	(1)
Season of Planting	273	(1)
Site Preparation	274	(1)
Methods of Planting	274	(6)
Planting Machines	280	(1)
Placement of Seedlings and Reshaping of Soil Surface	281	(1)
Density of Plantations	281	(1)
Spatial Arrangement of Plantations	282	(2)
Mixed Plantations	284	(1)
Enrichment Planting and Underplanting	285	(1)
Protection of New Plantations	285	(1)
The Role of Planting	286	(1)
Direct Seeding	287	(14)
Seed Supply	287	(2)
Treatment of Seeds to Hasten Germination	289	(1)
Control of Seed-Eating Animals	290	(1)
Effect of Site Factors and Their Modification	290	(1)
Relative Merits of Direct Seeding and Planting	291	(1)
Broadcast Seeding	292	(1)
Strip and Spot Seeding	293	(1)
Application of Direct Seeding	294	(7)
PART 4 Stand Development and Structure
Development of Silvicultural Systems and Methods of Regeneration	301	(15)
Classification of Methods of Regeneration	301	(2)
The Basis of Distinction Between Methods of Regeneration	303	(1)
Formulation of Silvicultural Systems	304	(3)
Elements of Silvicultural Systems	307	(2)
Role of Ownership Objectives in Formulating Silvicultural Systems	309	(1)
Resolution of Conflicting Objectives	310	(1)
Silviculture by Stand Prescription	310	(1)
Naming of Silvicultural Systems	311	(1)
The Silvicultural System as Working Hypothesis	312	(4)
The Silviculture of Pure Even - Aged Stands	316	(14)
Plantation Silviculture	317	(3)
Policies about Application of Plantation Silviculture	319	(1)
Regeneration of Pure Stands from Natural or Artificial Seeding	320	(2)
Clearcutting with Seeding from Adjacent Stands	320	(1)
Clearcutting with Regeneration from Seed on the Site	321	(1)
Applications of Pure-Stand Silviculture	322	(5)
West Coast Douglas-fir Region	322	(2)
Southern Pines	324	(2)
Closed-Cone Pines	326	(1)
The Semantics of Clearcutting	327	(3)
Vegetatively Regenerated Stands	330	(17)
Vegetative Regeneration	330	(6)
Stump-Sprouts	332	(2)
Stool-Sprouts	334	(1)
Seedling-Sprouts	335	(1)
Lignotubers	335	(1)
Sprouts from Adventitious Buds	336	(1)
Layering	336	(1)
Stump-Sprout Stands	336	(2)
Root-sucker Stands	338	(1)
Planted Coppice Stands	339	(1)
Coppice with Standards	340	(1)
The Role of Coppice Stands	341	(2)
Modern Use	343	(1)
Conversion of Coppice Stands to High Forests	344	(1)
Stands Reproduced by Natural Layering	345	(2)
Double - Cohort Pure Stands Regenerated by Partial Cutting	347	(17)
Preparatory Cuttings	348	(1)
Establishment or Seeding Cuttings	348	(5)
Characteristics of Reserved Trees	349	(1)
Arrangement, Number, and Distribution of Seed Trees	350	(1)
Sporadicity of Seed Crops	351	(1)
Severity of Cutting	352	(1)
Arrangement of Seed Trees	352	(1)
Removal Cuttings	353	(2)
Variations in Spatial Patterns of Stand Structure	355	(1)
Strip Arrangements	356	(1)
Application of Seed-tree Systems	356	(1)
Application of Shelterwood Systems	357	(7)
Silviculture of Pure Uneven-Aged Stands	364	(27)
The Place of Uneven-Aged Stands	366	(1)
Single-Tree Selection System	366	(1)
Group-Selection System	367	(4)
Strip-Selection System	371	(1)
Quantitative Methods of Managing Uneven-Aged Stands	371	(10)
The Concept of the Balanced All-Aged Stand	371	(1)
Simplifying Approximations	372	(1)
Regulation of Cut by Diameter Distribution	373	(3)
Negative Exponential Distributions of Diameters as Guides	376	(2)
Possibilities with More Large and Fewer Small Trees	378	(1)
Other Approaches to Regulation of Stands for Sustained Yield	379	(1)
Pitfalls	380	(1)
Creation of Balanced Uneven-Aged Stands	380	(1)
Irregular Uneven-Aged Stands	381	(1)
Evolution of Selection Methods	382	(2)
Economic Selection Methods and ``Selective Cutting''	383	(1)
Examples of Management of Pure Uneven-Aged Stands	384	(7)
Restrictive Sites	384	(3)
Good Sites	387	(4)
Stands of Mixed Species	391	(32)
Single-cohort Stratified Mixtures	392	(1)
Relation Between Development and Treatment	392	(6)
Irregular Shelterwood Method	398	(2)
``One-Cut'' Shelterwood Method	400	(2)
Planting of Mixed Stands	402	(1)
Alternatives to the Concept of Stratified Mixtures	403	(1)
Mistaking Size for Age in Mixed Stands	403	(2)
Mixed, Multi-cohort Stands	405	(4)
Strip Arrangements	407	(1)
Group Arrangements	408	(1)
Two-Aged Stands	409	(2)
Examples of Management of Mixed Stands	411	(4)
North American Stratified Mixtures	411	(2)
Moist Tropical Forests	413	(2)
Relative Merits of Pure and Mixed Stands	415	(8)
PART 5 Silvicultural Management Objectives
Timber Management	423	(26)
The Role of Wood Utilization	424	(1)
Sustained Yield	425	(6)
Financial Considerations	431	(6)
Treatment of Monetary Investments	432	(2)
Choice of Interest Rate	434	(1)
Other Financial Factors	435	(1)
Rotation Length	435	(2)
Analysis of Stand Increment	437	(1)
Concentration and Efficient Arrangement of Operations	438	(2)
Harvesting Costs	438	(1)
Other Silvicultural Costs	439	(1)
Road Network and Harvest Layout Design	440	(2)
Aesthetic Considerations	441	(1)
Control of Operations	442	(1)
Designation of Trees and Stands for Cutting	442	(1)
Tree Marking	443	(6)
Mechanics of Marking	443	(1)
Costs and Benefits of Marking	444	(1)
Guidance of Timber Markers	444	(1)
Control of Waste and Damage in Logging	445	(2)
Protecting Vegetation	447	(2)
Silvicultural Management of Watershed Ecosystems	449	(15)
Protection of Soil and Water Quality	449	(2)
Landslides on Steep Slopes	451	(1)
Effect of Cutting Trees	452	(1)
Fog-drip	453	(1)
Wetland Problems	454	(1)
Storage and Leaching of Nutrients	455	(1)
Association with Close Utilization of Resources	456	(1)
Defense by Revegetation	456	(1)
Construction and Maintenance of Roads and Trails	457	(2)
Management of Road Networks	459	(1)
Effect of Different Kinds of Logging Equipment	460	(4)
Silvicultural Control of Damaging Agencies	464	(19)
Protection Against Abiotic Agencies	465	(5)
Fire Control	465	(1)
Dealing with Dead Wood and Slash	466	(2)
Wind Damage	468	(2)
Protection from Ice, Snow, and Frost	470	(1)
Biotic Agencies	470	(5)
Role of Mixtures of Species and Age Classes	473	(1)
Problems with Unnatural Conditions	474	(1)
Other Aspects of Pest Management	475	(1)
Damage Control Cuttings	475	(8)
Presalvage Cuttings	475	(1)
Sanitation Cuttings	476	(2)
Salvage Cuttings	478	(5)
Silvicultural Management of Wildlife Habitat	483	(25)
Habitat Elements	485	(8)
Food	486	(3)
Shelter	489	(2)
Stream Habitats	491	(2)
Importance of Vertical Stand Structure	493	(1)
Importance of Modifying Forest Structure	494	(7)
Tree Species Composition	494	(1)
Old-Growth Habitat	495	(1)
Sizes and Spatial Arrangement of Stands	495	(5)
Corridors	500	(1)
The Landscape Context of a Management Area	500	(1)
Examples of Application	501	(5)
Elk and Woodpecker Habitat in Eastern Oregon	501	(2)
Habitat Diversity in Southern New England	503	(1)
Biodiversity Conservation in Boreal Forests	504	(2)
Control of Wildlife Damage to Trees	506	(2)
Agroforestry	508	(11)
Stages of Stand Development and Agroforestry	509	(1)
Agrisilvicultural Practices	510	(3)
Silvopastoral Practices	513	(3)
Shelterbelts and Contour Hedgerows	516	(1)
Selection of Tree Species for Agroforestry	516	(3)
Appendix I Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs Mentioned in the Text	519	(4)
Appendix II Abbreviations in Reference Lists	523	(2)
Index	525