Principles of Ecotoxicology, Fourth Edition

by Walker; C.H.

• ISBN13: 9781439862667
• ISBN10: 1439862664
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2012-03-12
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Presenting a multidisciplinary perspective in a concise format, Principles of Ecotoxicology, Third Edition discusses the fundamental chemical and ecological nature of pollution processes while identifying the major classes of pollutants and their environmental fate. The first edition was originally created to fill the need for a textbook that covered the basic principles of a developing and wide-ranging field and the second edition expanded on that theme. Keeping the focus on principles over practice that has made each incarnation of this textbook so popular, the third edition brings the text up to date and strengthens coverage in areas that have come to the forefront of the field.The third edition features new material on pollutants that are receiving closer scrutiny, naturally occurring poisons, the history of chemical warfare, population risk assessment, community structure, neonicotinoids, endocrine disruption, and neurotoxicity. A new section on extrapolating from molecular interaction to the consequent population changes highlights the molecules to ecosystem approach and provides the groundwork for discussions on the employment of biomarker strategies in field studies. A major theme of the new material is how the concepts discussed can contribute to improved methods of environmental risk assessment. With updates to every chapter, this text provides essential information for students in easy to use and understandable format.

Table of Contents

Preface to Fourth Edition	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Authors	p. xix
Introduction	p. xxi
Pollutants and Their Fate in Ecosystems
Major Classes of Pollutants	p. 3
Inorganic Ions	p. 3
Metals	p. 3
Anions	p. 6
Organic Pollutants	p. 7
Hydrocarbons	p. 8
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)	p. 10
Polychlorinated Benzodioxins (PCDDs)	p. 12
Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDFs)	p. 12
Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs)	p. 12
Organochlorine Insecticides	p. 13
Organophosphorous Insecticides (OPs)	p. 14
Carbamate Insecticides	p. 15
Pyrethroid Insecticides	p. 16
Neonicotinoids	p. 16
Phenoxy Herbicides (Plant Growth Regulators)	p. 17
Anticoagulant Rodenticides	p. 18
Detergents	p. 18
Chlorophenols	p. 18
Ethinylestradiol (EE2)	p. 20
Pharmaceuticals	p. 20
Organometallic Compounds	p. 20
Radioactive Isotopes	p. 21
Introduction	p. 21
Natures and Intensities of Radioactive Decay Products	p. 22
Half-Lives	p. 23
Biochemistry	p. 23
Gaseous Pollutants	p. 24
Nanoparticles	p. 25
Summary	p. 25
Further Reading	p. 26
Routes by which Pollutants Enter Ecosystems	p. 27
Entry into Surface Waters	p. 27
Contamination of Land	p. 30
Discharge into Atmosphere	p. 31
Quantification of Release of Pollutants	p. 35
Summary	p. 35
Further Reading	p. 36
Long-Range Movements and Global Transport of Pollutants	p. 37
Factors Determining Movements and Distributions of Pollutants	p. 37
Polarity and Water Solubility	p. 37
Partition Coefficients	p. 39
Vapor Pressure	p. 40
Partition between Environmental Compartments	p. 40
Molecular Stability and Recalcitrant Molecules	p. 40
Transport in Water	p. 41
Transport in Air	p. 42
Models for Environmental Distribution of Chemicals	p. 44
Summary	p. 48
Further Reading	p. 48
The Fate of Metals and Radioactive Isotopes in Contaminated Ecosystems	p. 49
Introduction	p. 49
Localization	p. 49
Persistence	p. 49
Bioconcentration and Bioaccumulation Factors	p. 50
Bioavailability	p. 51
Cocktails of Inorganic Pollutants	p. 51
Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 51
Introduction	p. 51
Metals	p. 51
Radioactivity	p. 54
Aquatic Systems	p. 55
Summary	p. 58
Further Reading	p. 59
Fates of Organic Pollutants in Individuals and in Ecosystems	p. 63
Fate within Individual Organisms	p. 63
General Model	p. 63
Processes of Uptake	p. 66
Processes of Distribution	p. 68
Storage	p. 69
Metabolism	p. 70
Sites of Excretion	p. 78
Toxicokinetic Models	p. 80
Toxicokinetic Models for Bioconcentration and Bioaccumulation	p. 82
Organic Pollutants in Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 84
Fate in Soils	p. 84
Transfer along Terrestrial Food Chains	p. 86
Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Ecosystems	p. 90
Pollutants in Sediments	p. 90
Transfer along Aquatic Food Chains	p. 91
Summary	p. 92
Further Reading	p. 93
Effects of Pollutants on Individual Organisms
Testing for Ecotoxicity	p. 97
General Principles	p. 97
Determination of Toxicities of Mixtures	p. 101
Toxicity Testing with Terrestrial Organisms	p. 102
Introduction	p. 102
Invertebrate Testing	p. 103
Testing with Earthworms	p. 103
Tests with Springtails	p. 106
Tests with Beneficial Arthropods	p. 106
Automated Videotracking	p. 108
Vertebrates	p. 109
Plants	p. 111
Toxicity Testing with Aquatic Organisms	p. 112
Tests for Direct Absorption from Water	p. 112
Sediment Toxicity Tests	p. 116
Risk Assessment	p. 116
Field Testing for Toxicity	p. 118
Alternative Methods in Ecotoxicity Testing	p. 119
Alternative Methods for Estimating Toxicity to Vertebrates	p. 120
Toxicity Testing on Live Vertebrates	p. 120
Toxicity Testing on Nonvertebrates	p. 121
Toxicity Testing on Cellular Systems	p. 121
Predictive Models	p. 122
Alternative Approaches toward More Ecological End Points	p. 122
Field Studies	p. 122
Microcosms and Msocosms	p. 123
Theoretical Models	p. 124
Summary	p. 124
Further Reading	p. 124
Biochemical Effects of Pollutants	p. 125
Introduction	p. 125
Protective Biochemical Responses	p. 128
Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity	p. 129
Examples of Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity	p. 131
Genotoxic Compounds	p. 131
Neurotoxic Compounds	p. 132
Mitochondrial Poisons	p. 134
Vitamin K Antagonists	p. 134
Thyroxine Antagonists	p. 135
Inhibition of ATPases	p. 135
Environmental Estrogens and Androgens	p. 135
Reactions with Protein Sulfhydryl (SH) Groups	p. 137
Photosystems of Plants	p. 137
Plant Growth Regulator Herbicides	p. 138
Summary	p. 138
Further Reading	p. 138
Physiological Effects of Pollutants	p. 141
Introduction	p. 141
Effects of Pollutants at Cellular Level	p. 141
Effects at Organ Level in Animals	p. 144
Effects at Whole Organism Level	p. 148
Neurophysiological Effects	p. 148
Effects on Behavior	p. 150
Reproductive Effects	p. 154
Effects on Plants	p. 156
Energy Costs of Physiological Change	p. 157
Summary	p. 161
Further Reading	p. 162
Interactive Effects of Pollutants	p. 163
Introduction	p. 163
Additive Effects	p. 164
Potentiation of Toxicity	p. 165
Potentiation Due to Inhibition of Detoxification	p. 167
Potentiation from Increased Activation	p. 169
Field Detection of Potentiation	p. 169
Summary	p. 171
Further Reading	p. 172
Biomarkers	p. 173
Classification of Biomarkers	p. 173
Specificity of Biomarkers	p. 174
Relationship of Biomarkers to Adverse Effects	p. 176
Specific Biomarkers	p. 178
Inhibition of Esterases	p. 178
The Induction of Monooxygenases	p. 178
Studies of Genetic Materials	p. 179
Porphyrins and Heme Synthesis	p. 182
Induction of Vitellogenin	p. 183
Behavioral Biomarkers	p. 183
Biomarkers in Plants	p. 185
Role of Biomarkers in Environmental Risk Assessment	p. 186
Summary	p. 188
Further Reading	p. 188
In Situ Biological Monitoring	p. 189
Introduction	p. 189
Community Effects (Type 1 Biomonitoring)	p. 189
Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 190
Freshwater Ecosystems	p. 190
Marine Ecosystems	p. 193
Bioconcentration of Pollutants (Type 2 Biomonitoring)	p. 194
Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 194
Freshwater Ecosystems	p. 195
Marine Ecosystems	p. 195
Effects of Pollutants (Type 3 Biomonitoring)	p. 198
Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 199
Freshwater Ecosystems	p. 199
Marine Ecosystems	p. 200
Genetically Based Resistance to Pollution (Type 4 Biomonitoring)	p. 201
Conclusions	p. 202
Summary	p. 203
Further Reading	p. 203
Effects of Pollutants on Populations and Communities
Changes in Numbers: Population Dynamics	p. 207
Population Abundance	p. 208
Population Growth Rate	p. 209
Population Growth Rate Depends on the Properties of Individual Organisms	p. 209
The Life History and Population Growth Rate of the Coastal Copepod Eurytemora affinis	p. 211
Density Dependence	p. 213
Identifying Which Factors Are Density Dependent: k-Value Analysis	p. 215
Interactions between Species	p. 217
Field Studies: Three Case Studies	p. 219
The Decline of the Partridges	p. 219
Population Studies of Pesticides and Birds of Prey in the UK	p. 225
The Boxworth Project (Experimental Analysis of the Effects of Pesticides on Farmland)	p. 229
Modeling the Effects of Insecticides on Skylarks for Risk Assessment Purposes	p. 233
Summary	p. 236
Further Reading	p. 236
Evolution of Resistance to Pollution	p. 239
Chronic Pollution Is Environmental Change	p. 239
Evolutionary Processes in Constant Environments	p. 239
The Evolution of Resistance When There Is a Mortality-Production Trade-Off	p. 242
Evolutionary Responses to Environmental Changes	p. 243
Monogenic Resistance	p. 247
Case Studies	p. 248
Evolution of Pesticide Resistance	p. 248
Evolution of Metal Tolerance in Plants	p. 251
Evolution of Industrial Melanism	p. 253
Evolutionary Response of Dog Whelks, Nucella lapillus, to TBT Contamination	p. 255
Evolution of Resistance to Pollution in Estuaries	p. 256
Summary	p. 258
Further Reading	p. 259
Changes in Communities and Ecosystems	p. 261
Introduction	p. 261
Changes in Soil Processes: The Functional Approach	p. 262
Changes in Compositions of Communities: The Structural Approach	p. 265
Changes in Soil Ecosystems	p. 266
Acidification of Lakes and Rivers	p. 268
Mesocosms	p. 270
Global Processes	p. 273
Summary	p. 274
Further Reading	p. 275
Extrapolating from Molecular Interactions to Consequent Effects at Population Level	p. 277
Introduction	p. 277
Translation of Toxic Effects across Organizational Boundaries	p. 278
From Effects at Site of Action to Localized Cellular Disturbances	p. 278
Example A: Action of Organophosphates on Acetylcholinesterase of Nervous System	p. 280
Example B: Action of p,p'-DDT on Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels of Axonal Membranes	p. 280
Example C: Action of p,p'-DDE on Transport of Calcium into Eggshell Glands of Birds	p. 282
Example D: Action of 17A-Ethinylestradiol (EE2) on Estrogenic Receptors of Fish	p. 282
From Cellular Disturbances to Effects at Whole Organism Level	p. 283
Example A: Action of Organophosphates on Acetylcholinesterase of Nervous System	p. 283
Example B: Action of p,p'-DDT on Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels of Axonal Membranes	p. 284
Example C: Action of p,p'-DDE on Transport of Calcium into Eggshell Glands of Birds	p. 284
Example D: Action of 17A-Ethinylestradiol on Estrogenic Receptors of Fish	p. 284
From Effects on Whole Organism to Population Effects	p. 285
Example A: Action of Organophosphates on Acetylcholinesterase of Nervous System	p. 285
Example B: Action of p,p'-DDT on Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels of Axonal Membranes	p. 286
Example C: Action of p,p'-DDE on Transport of Calcium into Eggshell Glands	p. 286
Example D: Action of 17A-Ethinylestradiol on Estrogenic Receptors in Fish	p. 286
Complete Causal Chain	p. 287
Biomarker Strategies	p. 287
Establishing Causality Where Pollution Already Exists	p. 288
Biomarker Strategies in the Field	p. 289
Control Problems	p. 290
Selection of Biomarkers for Field Studies	p. 291
Biomarkers and Environmental Risk Assessment	p. 292
Summary	p. 292
Further Reading	p. 293
Biomarkers in Population Studies	p. 295
DDE-Induced Eggshell Thinning in Raptorial and Fish-Eating Birds	p. 295
Reproductive Failure of Fish-Eating Birds on Great Lakes of North America	p. 300
Reproductive Failures of Mollusks Caused by Tributyl Tin	p. 305
Forest Spraying in Eastern Canada to Control Spruce Budworm	p. 307
Summary	p. 311
Further Reading	p. 311
Ecotoxicology: Looking to the Future	p. 313
Changing Patterns of Chemical Pollution	p. 313
Environmental Risk Assessment	p. 316
The Use of Models in Population Risk Assessment	p. 316
Technological Advances and New Biomarker Assays	p. 318
A Better Integrated Approach to Environmental Risk Assessment?	p. 320
Ethical Issues	p. 321
Summary	p. 322
Further Reading	p. 322
Glossary	p. 323
Bibliography	p. 329
Index	p. 353
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