Principles of Flight Simulation

"Principles of Flight Simulation" is a comprehensive guide to flight simulator design, covering the modeling, algorithms and software which underpin flight simulation.The book covers the mathematical modeling and software which underpin flight simulation. The detailed equations of motion used to model aircraft dynamics are developed and then applied to the simulation of flight control systems and navigation systems. Real-time computer graphics algorithms are developed to implement aircraft displays and visual systems, covering OpenGL and OpenSceneGraph. The book also covers techniques used in motion platform development, the design of instructor stations and validation and qualification of simulator systems. "Principles of Flight Simulation" will appeal to senior and postgraduate students of system dynamics, flight control systems, avionics and computer graphics, as well as engineers in related disciplines covering mechanical, electrical and computer systems e

David Allerton is Professor of Computer Systems Engineering in the Department of Automatic control and system Engineeing at the university of sheffield. He is a Fellow of the Royal aeronautical society (FRAeS) and the instiuttion of electrical engineers (FIEE). He has been a lecturer at the university of southampton and professor of Avionics at cranfield university. He has served on several national committees and is member and past chairman of the Royal Aeronautical Society's Flight Simulation Group.

About the Author	p. xiii
Preface	p. xv
Glossary	p. xvii
Introduction	p. 1
Historical Perspective	p. 1
The First 40 Years of Flight 1905-1945	p. 1
Analogue Computing, 1945-1965	p. 3
Digital Computing, 1965-1985	p. 5
The Microelectronics Revolution, 1985-present	p. 6
The Case for Simulation	p. 9
Safety	p. 9
Financial Benefits	p. 10
Training Transfer	p. 11
Engineering Flight Simulation	p. 13
The Changing Role of Simulation	p. 14
The Organization of a Flight Simulator	p. 16
Equations of Motion	p. 16
Aerodynamic Model	p. 17
Engine Model	p. 18
Data Acquisition	p. 18
Gear Model	p. 19
Weather Model	p. 19
Visual System	p. 20
Sound System	p. 21
Motion System	p. 21
Control Loading	p. 22
Instrument Displays	p. 23
Navigation Systems	p. 23
Maintenance	p. 24
The Concept of Real-time Simulation	p. 24
Pilot Cues	p. 27
Visual Cueing	p. 28
Motion Cueing	p. 29
Training versus Simulation	p. 30
Examples of Simulation	p. 32
Commercial Flight Training	p. 32
Military Flight Training	p. 34
Ab Initio Flight Training	p. 34
Land Vehicle Simulators	p. 34
Engineering Flight Simulators	p. 35
Aptitude Testing	p. 36
Computer-based Training	p. 36
Maintenance Training	p. 37
References	p. 37
Principles of Modelling	p. 41
Modelling Concepts	p. 41
Newtonian Mechanics	p. 43
Axes Systems	p. 51
Differential Equations	p. 53
Numerical Integration	p. 56
Approximation Methods	p. 56
First-order Methods	p. 58
Higher-order Methods	p. 59
Real-time Computing	p. 63
Data Acquisition	p. 67
Data Transmission	p. 67
Data Acquisition	p. 69
Flight Data	p. 74
Interpolation	p. 77
Distributed Systems	p. 82
A Real-time Protocol	p. 91
Problems in Modelling	p. 92
References	p. 96
Aircraft Dynamics	p. 97
Principles of Flight Modelling	p. 97
The Atmosphere	p. 98
Forces	p. 100
Aerodynamic Lift	p. 100
Aerodynamic Side force	p. 104
Aerodynamic Drag	p. 105
Propulsive Forces	p. 106
Gravitational Force	p. 107
Moments	p. 107
Static Stability	p. 109
Aerodynamic Moments	p. 111
Aerodynamic Derivatives	p. 113
Axes Systems	p. 114
The Body Frame	p. 115
Stability Axes	p. 117
Wind Axes	p. 117
Inertial Axes	p. 118
Transformation between Axes	p. 118
Earth-centred Earth-fixed (ECEF) Frame	p. 119
Latitude and Longitude	p. 122
Quaternions	p. 122
Equations of Motion	p. 124
Propulsion	p. 127
Piston Engines	p. 128
Jet Engines	p. 136
The Landing Gear	p. 138
The Equations Collected	p. 143
The Equations Revisited - Long Range Navigation	p. 148
Coriolis Acceleration	p. 150
References	p. 154
Simulation of Flight Control Systems	p. 157
The Laplace Transform	p. 157
Simulation of Transfer Functions	p. 161
PID Control Systems	p. 163
Trimming	p. 169
Aircraft Flight Control Systems	p. 171
The Turn Coordinator and the Yaw Damper	p. 172
The Auto-throttle	p. 176
Vertical Speed Management	p. 179
Altitude Hold	p. 182
Heading Hold	p. 185
Localizer Tracking	p. 189
Auto-land Systems	p. 191
Flight Management Systems	p. 195
References	p. 201
Aircraft Displays	p. 203
Principles of Display Systems	p. 203
Line Drawing	p. 205
Character Generation	p. 211
2D Graphics Operations	p. 214
Textures	p. 216
OpenGL®	p. 219
Simulation of Aircraft Instruments	p. 227
Simulation of EFIS Displays	p. 235
Attitude Indicator	p. 237
Altimeter	p. 239
Airspeed Indicator	p. 240
Compass Card	p. 241
Head-up Displays	p. 242
References	p. 246
Simulation of Aircraft Navigation Systems	p. 247
Principles of Navigation	p. 247
Navigation Computations	p. 250
Map Projections	p. 252
Primary Flight Information	p. 254
Attitude Indicator	p. 254
Altimeter	p. 255
Airspeed Indicator	p. 255
Compass	p. 255
Vertical Speed Indicator	p. 255
Turn Indicator	p. 255
Slip Ball	p. 255
Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)	p. 255
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)	p. 257
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)	p. 258
Instrument Landing Systems (ILS)	p. 259
The Flight Director	p. 260
Inertial Navigation Systems	p. 263
Axes	p. 264
INS Equations	p. 264
INS Error Model	p. 268
Validation of the INS Model	p. 272
Global Positioning Systems	p. 274
References	p. 282
Further Reading	p. 283
Model Validation	p. 285
Simulator Qualification and Approval	p. 285
Model Validation Methods	p. 288
Cockpit Geometry	p. 291
Static Tests	p. 291
Open-loop Tests	p. 294
Closed-loop Tests	p. 294
Latency	p. 298
Performance Analysis	p. 305
Longitudinal Dynamics	p. 312
Lateral Dynamics	p. 323
Model Validation in Perspective	p. 328
References	p. 329
Visual Systems	p. 331
Background	p. 331
The Visual System Pipeline	p. 332
3D Graphics Operations	p. 336
Real-time Image Generation	p. 343
A Rudimentary Real-time Wire Frame IG System	p. 343
An OpenGL Real-time IG System	p. 347
An OpenGL Real-time Textured IG System	p. 350
An OpenSceneGraph IG System	p. 352
Visual Database Management	p. 364
Projection Systems	p. 370
Problems in Visual Systems	p. 374
References	p. 376
The Instructor Station	p. 377
Education, Training and Instruction	p. 377
Part-task Training and Computer-based Training	p. 378
The Role of the Instructor	p. 379
Designing the User Interface	p. 380
Human Factors	p. 382
Classification of User Operations	p. 383
Structure of the User Interface	p. 384
User Input Selections	p. 388
Instructor Commands	p. 394
Real-time Interaction	p. 398
Map Displays	p. 404
Flight Data Recording	p. 409
Scripting	p. 413
References	p. 421
Motion Systems	p. 423
Motion or No Motion?	p. 423
Physiological Aspects of Motion	p. 425
Actuator Configurations	p. 428
Equations of Motion	p. 432
Implementation of a Motion System	p. 436
Hydraulic Actuation	p. 443
Modelling Hydraulic Actuators	p. 447
Limitations of Motion Systems	p. 451
Future Motion Systems	p. 453
References	p. 454
Index	p. 457
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