Psychological Evaluations for the Courts, Second Edition A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers

by Melton, Gary B.; Petrila, John; Poythress, Norman G.; Slobogin, Christopher

• ISBN13: 9781572302365
• ISBN10: 1572302364
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-08-01
• Publisher: The Guilford Press

Summary

Considered the definitive resource and text on forensic psychiatry and psychology since the publication of the first edition, Psychological Evaluations for the Courts, Second Edition, continues to be the most comprehensive discussion of legal, research, and clinical issues for both mental health and legal professionals. Fully revised and updated, the volume covers a broad range of topics in forensic mental health, including insanity, child abuse, sentencing, personal injury claims, and civil commitment. Less traditional subjects such as federal antidiscrimination and entitlement laws, competency to testify, workers' compensation, and a new section on the clinical evaluation of witness credibility have also been added. Throughout, the authors summarize and analyze legal issues, offer suggestions for evaluation procedures, and review appropriate research on both clinical opinions and the legal process. New to the Second Edition Completely updated to reflect current research and practice, the volume contains four entirely new chapters and has been revised throughout to include analyses of new case law and clinical techniques; important research on competency and dangerousness from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Mental Health and Law; and new ethical rules developed by the American Psychological Assocation and the American Psychiatric Association. Also new to this edition are exercises and case studies for students in each chapter (see below).

Author Biography

Gary B. Melton, PhD, is Director of the Institute for Families in Society, Professor of Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Science, and Adjunct Professor of Law, Pediatrics, and Psychology at the University of South Carolina.

John Petrila, JD, LLM, is Professor and Chair, Department of Mental Health Law and Policy, Florida Mental Health Institute, at the University of South Florida in Tampa.

Norman G. Poythress, PhD, is Professor and Research Director, Department of Mental Health Law and Policy, Florida Mental Health Institute, at the University of South Florida in Tampa.

Christopher Slobogin, JD, LLM, is Professor, Alumni Research Scholar, and Associate Dean of Law at the University of Florida in Gainesville.

Table of Contents

Part I. General Considerations	3	(116)
Chapter 1. Law and the Mental Health Professions: An Uneasy Alliance	3	(23)
1.01. The Context for Law and Behavioral Science	3	(1)
1.02. Some Preliminary Problems in Law and Mental Health	4	(4)
(a) Bridging Gaps in Training	5	(1)
(b) Bridging Attitudinal Differences	6	(1)
(c) The State of the Art	7	(1)
1.03. Paradigm Conflicts	8	(8)
(a) Free Will versus Determinism	8	(2)
(b) The Process of Factfinding	10	(1)
(c) The Nature of a Fact	11	(5)
(1) From Probability to Certainty	11	(1)
(2) From Group to Individual	12	(4)
1.04. Should Mental Health Professionals Be Considered Experts?	16	(7)
(a) The Definition of Specialized Knowledge	16	(3)
(b) Limitations on the Use of Specialized Knowledge	19	(1)
(c) Expertise under Frye and Daubert	20	(3)
1.05. Which Professionals Should Be Considered Experts?	23	(1)
1.06. Conclusion	24	(1)
Bibliography	24	(2)
Chapter 2. An Overview of the Legal System: Sources of Law, the Court System, and the Adjudicative Process	26	(15)
2.01. Introduction	26	(1)
2.02. Sources of Law	26	(4)
(a) Federal-State Relations	27	(1)
(b) Constitutions	28	(1)
(c) Statutes and Regulations	28	(1)
(d) The Judiciary	29	(1)
2.03. The Court System	30	(1)
(a) The Federal Court System	30	(1)
(b) State Judicial Systems	31	(1)
2.04. The Adjudicative Process	31	(8)
(a) The Criminal Process	32	(4)
(1) The Stages of a Criminal Prosecution	32	(2)
(2) Clinical Input: Issues, Points of Entry and Contacts	34	(2)
(b) Civil Proceedings	36	(1)
(c) Administrative Hearings	37	(1)
(d) Quasi-Criminal Proceedings: Civil Commitment and Juvenile Delinquency	38	(1)
2.05. Conclusion: The Interplay of Systems	39	(1)
Bibliography	40	(1)
Chapter 3. The Nature and Method of Forensic Assessment	41	(23)
3.01. Introduction	41	(1)
3.02. Distinctions between Therapeutic and Forensic Assessment	41	(4)
(a) Scope	43	(1)
(b) Importance of the Client's Perspective	43	(1)
(c) Voluntariness and Autonomy	43	(1)
(d) Threats to Validity	44	(1)
(e) Relationship Dynamics	44	(1)
(f) Pace and Setting	45	(1)
3.03. Conventional Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Procedures	45	(4)
(a) Categories of Tests	45	(2)
(b) Forensic Applications	47	(2)
(1) Relevance to Specific Legal Inquiry	47	(1)
(2) Hypothetical Nature of Test Results	48	(1)
(3) Limitations in Reconstructive Contexts	48	(1)
(4) Face Validity Considerations	49	(1)
3.04. Specialized Forensic Assessment Instruments	49	(1)
3.05. Archival and Third-Party Information	50	(2)
(a) Reasons for Seeking Third-Party Data	50	(1)
(b) The Process of Obtaining the Data	51	(1)
3.06. Amnesia: Hypnosis and Narcoanalysis	52	(1)
3.07. Malingering	53	(5)
(a) Interviewing Approaches to Assessing Malingering	54	(2)
(b) Psychological Testing	56	(1)
(1) Feigning Psychopathology	56	(1)
(2) Feigning Cognitive Impairment	57	(1)
(3) Summary	57	(1)
(c) Use of Third-Party Information	57	(1)
3.08. Challenges to the Basis of Expert Testimony	58	(4)
(a) Hearsay	60	(1)
(b) Polygraph Results	61	(1)
(c) Narcoanalysis and Hypnosis	61	(1)
(d) Other Clinical Techniques	62	(1)
3.09. Conclusion	62	(1)
Bibliography	63	(1)
Chapter 4. Constitutional, Common-Law, and Ethical Contours of the Evaluation Process: The Mental Health Professional as Double Agent	64	(31)
4.01. Introduction	64	(1)
4.02. The Fifth Amendment and the Right to Remain Silent	65	(7)
(a) Competency Evaluations	66	(1)
(b) Evaluations of Mental State at the Time of the Offense	67	(3)
(c) Sentencing Evaluations	70	(1)
(d) Juvenile Delinquency and Commitment Proceedings	70	(1)
(e) Other Civil Proceedings	71	(1)
(f) The "Miranda Warnings"	71	(1)
4.03. The Right to Counsel	72	(3)
(a) Counsel's Presence during the Evaluation	72	(2)
(b) Presenting an Effective Defense	74	(1)
(1) The Right to an Independent Evaluation	74	(1)
(2) Use of Experts Retained by the Opposing Party	75	(1)
4.04. Common-Law and Statutory Duties of the Evaluator	75	(4)
(a) Liability for Breach of Confidentiality	75	(1)
(b) The Duty to Protect the Public (Tarasoff)	76	(1)
(c) The Clinician-Patient Privileges	77	(1)
(d) Other Tort Doctrines Relevant to Evaluations	78	(1)
(1) The Informed Consent Doctrine	78	(1)
(2) Negligent Misdiagnosis	79	(1)
4.05. Ethical Considerations in the Evaluation Process	79	(13)
(a) Competence and Qualifications in Forensic Practice	81	(1)
(b) Clarifying Referrals with Legal Agents	82	(2)
(1) Legal Issues	82	(1)
(2) Professional Fees	83	(1)
(3) Prior Relationships	84	(1)
(c) Confused Roles and Dual Roles	84	(3)
(1) Forensic Contacts Alone	85	(1)
(2) Dual Forensic / Therapeutic Relationships	85	(2)
(d) Confidentiality and Informed Consent	87	(3)
(1) Basic Elements of Notification	88	(1)
(2) Additional Considerations Regarding Confidentiality in Criminal Cases	88	(2)
(3) The "Duty to Protect"	90	(1)
(e) Autonomy and Privacy Concerns	90	(2)
(1) Freedom of Choice to Participate	90	(1)
(2) Invasion of Privacy	91	(1)
4.06. Summary: Competence in Forensic Practice	92	(2)
Bibliography	94	(1)
Chapter 5. Managing Public and Private Forensic Services	95	(104)
5.01. Introduction	95	(1)
5.02. The Case for Specialization	95	(2)
(a) Avoiding Adverse Effects on General Mental Health Practice	96	(1)
(b) Building a Forensic Service System	96	(1)
(c) The Need for Specialized Knowledge	97	(1)
5.03. Types of Evaluation Systems	97	(5)
(a) Descriptions of Models	98	(1)
(1) Model I: Institution-Based, Inpatient Model	98	(1)
(2) Model II: Institution-Based, Outpatient Model	98	(1)
(3) Model III: Community-Based, Outpatient Model	99	(1)
(4) Model IV: Community-Based, Private Practitioner Model	99	(1)
(5) Model V: Mixed	99	(1)
(b) Evaluation of Models	99	(3)
(1) Cost	99	(1)
(2) Geography	100	(1)
(3) Quality Assurance	101	(1)
(4) Other Factors	101	(1)
5.04. Establishing a Forensic Evaluation System	102	(8)
(a) Organization	102	(1)
(b) Personnel	103	(4)
(1) Training	103	(3)
(2) Incentives to Specialize	106	(1)
(c) Management	107	(2)
(d) Financing	109	(1)
5.05. Operating a Forensic Practice	110	(4)
(a) Billing	110	(1)
(b) Establishing a Relationship with the Client	111	(1)
(c) Recordkeeping and Disclosure of Records	112	(1)
(d) Building and Marketing a Practice	113	(1)
5.06. Effective Diffusion of Behavioral Science Research	114	(1)
Bibliography	115	(4)
Part II. The Criminal Process	119	(178)
Chapter 6. Competency to Stand Trial	119	(37)
6.01. Introduction	119	(1)
6.02. The Legal Standard	120	(5)
(a) Historic Antecedents	120	(1)
(b) The Competency Test	121	(3)
(c) The Amnesic Defendant	124	(1)
(d) Drug-Induced Competency	125	(1)
6.03. Procedural Issues	125	(5)
(a) Who May Raise the Issue?	126	(1)
(b) The Standard for Raising the Issue	127	(1)
(c) Reasons Evaluation Is Sought	127	(1)
(d) Competency Examination: Situs and Length	128	(1)
(e) Adjudication of Competency	129	(1)
6.04. Disposition of the Incompetent Defendant	130	(5)
(a) The Rule of Jackson v. Indiana	130	(1)
(b) Inappropriate Hospitalization	131	(1)
(c) Trying the Incompetent Defendant	132	(1)
(d) Incompetent Defendants' Right to Refuse Medication	133	(2)
6.05. Research Relating to Competency Evaluations	135	(4)
(a) Frequency of Competency Evaluations and Findings	135	(1)
(b) Characteristics of Incompetent Defendants	136	(2)
(c) Quality of Competency Evaluations	138	(1)
6.06. Structured Evaluation Formats	139	(11)
(a) Competency Screening Test	139	(2)
(b) Competency Assessment Instrument	141	(1)
(c) Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview	141	(1)
(d) Georgia Court Competency Test	142	(1)
(e) Computer-Assisted Competence Assessment Tool	143	(1)
(f) Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants with Mental Retardation	144	(1)
(g) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication	145	(3)
(1) Structure of the MacArthur Research Protocol	145	(1)
(2) Description of Component Measures	146	(1)
(3) Findings from the MacArthur Field Study	147	(1)
(4) Development of the Mac-CAT-CA	148	(1)
(h) Summary	148	(2)
6.07. Guidelines for Evaluation	150	(5)
(a) Social Context	150	(1)
(b) Competency Evaluation Content	150	(4)
(1) Interview Format	151	(2)
(2) Psychological Testing	153	(1)
(3) Amnesia and Statements about the Offense	153	(1)
(c) Treatment and Restorability	154	(1)
6.08. Conclusion: The Need for Policy Consultation	155	(1)
Bibliography	155	(1)
Chapter 7. Other Competencies in the Criminal Process	156	(20)
7.01. Introduction	156	(1)
7.02. Competency to Consent to a Search or Seizure	157	(1)
7.03. Competency to Confess	158	(1)
(a) The Law of Confessions	158	(3)
(b) Evaluation Issues	161	(2)
7.04. Competency to Plead Guilty	163	(1)
7.05. Competency to Waive the Right to Counsel	164	(2)
7.06. Competency to Refuse an Insanity Defense	166	(1)
7.07. Competency to Testify	167	(14)
(a) Legal Requirements for Testimonial Competency	168	(1)
(b) Psychological Research	169	(5)
(1) Observation	169	(1)
(2) Memory and Suggestibility	169	(3)
(3) Ability to Communicate	172	(1)
(4) Moral Development: Distinguishing Truth and Falsity	173	(1)
(5) Conclusions	174	(1)
(c) Guidelines for Evaluation	174	(2)
(d) Assessment of Witness Credibility	176	(4)
(1) The Law on Expert Testimony about Witness Credibility	176	(3)
(2) Legal Strictures on Evaluations of Credibility	179	(2)
7.08. Competency to Be Sentenced and Executed	181	(4)
(a) Competency at the Sentencing Proceeding	181	(1)
(b) Competency to Be Imprisoned or Executed	182	(1)
(c) Evaluation Issues	183	(1)
(d) Treatment Issues	184	(1)
Bibliography	185	(1)
Chapter 8. Mental State at the Time of the Offense	186	(63)
8.01. Introduction	186	(1)
8.02. The Insanity Defense	186	(16)
(a) Common Misperceptions about the Defense	187	(3)
(1) How Often Is the Plea of Insanity Made?	187	(1)
(2) How Often Is the Plea Successful?	188	(1)
(3) What Happens to Those Found NGRI?	188	(1)
(4) How Dangerous Are Those Found NGRI?	189	(1)
(b) History of the Defense	190	(3)
(c) A Closer Look at the Insanity Defense	193	(9)
(1) Mental Disease or Defect	195	(2)
(2) Causation	197	(1)
(3) Cognitive Impairment	198	(2)
(4) Volitional Impairment	200	(1)
(5) Burden and Standard of Proof	201	(1)
8.03. Exculpatory and Mitigating Doctrines Other than Insanity	202	(13)
(a) Automatism Defense	203	(1)
(b) Mens Rea Testimony (Diminished Capacity)	204	(4)
(c) Actus Reus Testimony	208	(2)
(d) Self-Defense, Provocation, Duress, and Entrapment	210	(3)
(e) Defenses Based on Intoxication	213	(1)
(f) The "Guilty but Mentally Ill" Plea	214	(1)
8.04. Research on the Relationship of Diagnosis to MSO Defenses	215	(13)
(a) Psychoses and Personality Disorders	216	(2)
(b) Epilepsy	218	(2)
(c) Hypoglycemic Syndrome	220	(1)
(d) Dissociative States	221	(2)
(e) Postraumatic Stress Disorder	223	(1)
(f) Genetic Aberrations: The XYY Syndrome	224	(1)
(g) Impulse Disorders	225	(2)
(h) Other Novel Defenses	227	(1)
8.05. Reliability and Validity of MSO Opinions	228	(6)
(a) Reliability Studies	228	(2)
(b) Validity Studies	230	(1)
(c) Formal Assessment of Insanity: The RCRAS	231	(3)
8.06. MSO Investigation	234	(12)
(a) Preliminary Screening for MSO Defense	234	(1)
(b) Comprehensive MSO Investigation Procedures	235	(1)
(1) Third-Party Information	235	(4)
(2) Phases and Tone of the Defendant Interview	239	(1)
(3) Testing, Hypnosis, and Other Special Procedures	240	(6)
8.07. Formulating an Opinion	242	(4)
(a) Behavioral Formulations	242	(3)
(b) Psychodynamic Formulations	245	(1)
8.08. Conclusion	246	(2)
Bibliography	248	(1)
Chapter 9. Sentencing	249	(48)
9.01. Introduction	249	(1)
9.02. A Brief History of Sentencing	250	(2)
9.03. A Comparison of Rehabilitative and Retributive Sentencing	252	(6)
(a) The Role of Legal Decisionmakers	253	(1)
(1) The Legislature	253	(1)
(2) The Prosecutor	254	(1)
(3) The Court	255	(1)
(4) The Parole Board	256	(1)
(b) Procedures	256	(1)
(1) The Degree of Formality	256	(1)
(2) The Presentence Report	257	(1)
(c) The Role of Mental Health Professionals	258	(1)
9.04. Special Sentencing Provisions	258	(6)
(a) Repeat Offender Statutes	259	(1)
(b) Sexual Offender Statutes	259	(4)
(c) Youthful Offenders	263	(1)
(d) Drug-Dependent Offenders	263	(1)
9.05. Capital Sentencing	264	(3)
(a) Substantive Criteria	265	(2)
(b) Procedural Criteria	267	(1)
9.06. Factors Influencing Sentencing	267	(3)
(a) Judicial Philosophy	267	(1)
(b) System and Defendant-Based Factors	268	(1)
(c) Presentence Reports	268	(1)
(d) The Impact of Clinical Recommendations	269	(1)
9.07. Assessment of Treatment Needs	270	(4)
(a) Characteristics of Offenders Evaluated for Treatment	270	(1)
(b) Conducting the Treatment Evaluation	271	(1)
(c) Formulating the Treatment Recommendation	272	(1)
(1) Treatment Bias	272	(1)
(2) Unrealistic Recommendations	272	(1)
(3) "Forced Treatment,"	273	(1)
(4) The Scope of Recommendations	273	(1)
9.08. Assessment of Culpability	274	(3)
(a) Understanding the Offense	274	(1)
(b) Understanding the Offender	275	(1)
(c) Understanding the Victim	275	(1)
(d) Evaluating Culpability	276	(1)
9.09. Violence Prediction and Risk Assessment	277	(16)
(a) Factors that Influence Judgments about Dangerousness	277	(2)
(1) Variability in the Legal Definition	277	(1)
(2) Complexity of the Literature	278	(1)
(3) Judgment Errors and Biases	278	(1)
(4) Political Consequences for the Predictor	279	(1)
(b) Accuracy of Clinical Predictions of Dangerousness	279	(4)
(1) Types of Errors and Base Rates	279	(3)
(2) First-Generation Prediction Studies	282	(1)
(3) Critique of First-Generation Studies	282	(1)
(4) Risk Assessment and Management: A Second Generation of Research	283	(1)
(c) The Assessment of (Long-Term) Risk for Violence	284	(9)
(1) Three Approaches to the Assessment of Risk	284	(1)
(2) Empirical Correlates of Dangerousness	285	(5)
(3) Individualized (Anamnestic) Risk Appraisal	290	(2)
(4) Formulations Regarding Risk	292	(1)
Bibliography	293	(4)
Part III. Noncriminal Adjudication	297	(120)
Chapter 10. Civil Commitment	297	(40)
10.01. Introduction	297	(2)
10.02. A History of Commitment Law	299	(7)
(a) From Ancient Times to the 1970s	299	(1)
(b) The Reform Movement	300	(3)
(1) Challenges to the Medical Model	301	(1)
(2) Challenges to the Consequences of Commitment	301	(1)
(3) Challenges to Commitment Process and Criteria	302	(1)
(c) Supreme Court Retrenchment	303	(3)
10.03. Substantive Criteria for Commitment	306	(7)
(a) Mental Disorder	307	(1)
(b) Capacity to Make Treatment Decisions	308	(1)
(c) Danger to Others	308	(1)
(d) Danger to Self	309	(1)
(e) Grave Disability/Inability to Care for Self	309	(1)
(f) Need for Treatment	310	(1)
(g) The Least Restrictive Alternative	311	(1)
(h) Outpatient Commitment	311	(1)
10.04. Procedural Due Process	313	(4)
(a) Inpatient Commitment Procedures	313	(2)
(1) Emergency Admissions	313	(1)
(2) Long-Term Detention	314	(1)
(b) Outpatient Commitment Procedures	315	(2)
(c) Voluntary Commitment Procedures	317	(1)
10.05. The Effects of Commitment Laws and Commitment	317	(4)
(a) Frequency of Commitment	318	(1)
(b) Commitment Criteria	318	(1)
(c) Procedures	319	(1)
(d) Why the Laws Have Failed: Pressures for Hospitalization	320	(1)
(e) The Questionable Benefit of Hospitalization	320	(1)
(f) The Need for Caution	320	(1)
10.06. Attorney's Role	321	(2)
10.07. Clinician's Role	323	(1)
10.08. Commitment Evaluation	323	(5)
(a) Mental Illness and Need for Treatment	323	(1)
(b) Dangerousness to Self	324	(2)
(1) Correlates of Risk for Suicide	324	(1)
(2) The Clinical Assessment of Suicidal Risk	325	(1)
(3) Suicide "Prediction" versus Risk Assessment	326	(1)
(c) Grave Disability/Inability to Care for Self	326	(1)
(d) Dangerousness to Others	327	(1)
10.09. The Process of the Evaluation	328	(2)
(a) The Right to Silence	328	(1)
(b) The Right to Assistance of Counsel	329	(1)
(c) The Context of Civil Commitment Evaluations	329	(1)
10.10. Special Commitment Settings and Populations	330	(5)
(a) Minors	330	(1)
(b) Jail and Prison Inmates	331	(1)
(1) Inmates Convicted of a Crime	331	(1)
(2) Inmates Awaiting Trial	331	(1)
(c) Insanity Acquittees	332	(1)
(d) People with Mental Retardation	333	(1)
(e) People Who Abuse Substances	334	(1)
Bibliography	335	(7)
Chapter 11. Civil Competencies	337	(26)
11.01. Introduction	337	(1)
11.02. Guardianship	338	(7)
(a) Forms of Guardianship	339	(1)
(b) Determining Need for Guardianship	340	(3)
(1) Legal Requirements	340	(2)
(2) Clinical Evaluation	342	(1)
(c) Determining Who Shall Be the Guardian	343	(1)
(d) Determining What the Guardian Shall Do	344	(1)
(e) Advanced Directives	344	(1)
11.03. Competency to Make Treatment Decisions	345	(11)
(a) Requirements for Informed Consent	345	(4)
(1) Disclosure	346	(1)
(2) Competency	347	(2)
(3) Voluntariness	349	(1)
(b) The Right to Refuse Psychoactive Medication	349	(3)
(c) Research on Informed Consent	352	(3)
(1) Disclosure	352	(1)
(2) Competency	353	(2)
(3) Voluntariness	355	(1)
(d) Evaluation of Competency to Make Treatment Decisions	355	(1)
11.04. Competency to Consent to Research	356	(2)
(a) Legal Requirements	357	(1)
(b) Research	357	(1)
(c) Evaluation	358	(1)
11.05. Testamentary Capacity	358	(4)
(a) Legal Requirements	359	(1)
(b) Clinical Evaluation of Testamentary Capacity	360	(2)
(1) Testator Knowledge That Will Is Being Made	360	(1)
(2) Testator Knowledge of Nature and Extent of Property	361	(1)
(3) Testator Knowledge of Natural Objects of Bounty	361	(1)
(4) Testator Knowledge of the Manner in Which Property Is Disposed	361	(1)
(c) Conclusion	362	(1)
Bibliography	362	(1)
Chapter 12. Compensating Mental Injuries: Workers' Compensation and Torts	363	(10)
12.01. Introduction	363	(1)
12.02. Workers' Compensation Law	364	(5)
(a) The Claims Process	365	(1)
(b) Substantive Criteria for Compensation	366	(1)
(1) Injury or Disability	366	(1)
(2) In the Course of Employment	366	(1)
(3) Injury Arising "by Accident"	367	(1)
(c) Mental Injury	367	(1)
(1) Physical Trauma Causing Mental Injury	367	(1)
(2) Mental Stimulus Causing Physical Injury	368	(1)
(3) Mental Stimulus Causing Mental Injury	368	(1)
(4) Preexisting Mental Disorder	369	(1)
12.03. The Tort of Emotional Distress	369	(4)
(a) Substantive Criteria	369	(2)
(1) Duty	370	(1)
(2) Breach of Duty	370	(1)
(3) Proximate Cause	371	(1)
(4) Compensable Damages	371	(1)
(b) Mental Injury	371	(2)
(1) Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress	372	(1)
(2) Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress	372	(1)
(c) The Predisposed Plaintiff	373	(1)
12.04. Causation in Mental Injury Cases: A Paradigm Clash?	373	(1)
12.05. Clinical Evaluation of Mental Injury	374	(7)
(a) Context of Evaluation	374	(1)
(b) Scope of Evaluation	375	(1)
(c) Ascertaining Mental Injury	375	(3)
(1) Traumatic Neurosis/Posttraumatic Stress	376	(1)
(2) Other Conditions	377	(1)
(3) Malingering	377	(1)
(d) Assessing the Relationship between Injury and Event	378	(1)
(e) Ascertaining Effects of Mental Injury	379	(1)
(f) Prognosis	380	(1)
12.06. Conclusion: Reports and Testimony	381	(1)
Bibliography	381	(2)
Chapter 13. Federal Antidiscrimination and Entitlement Laws	383	(34)
13.01. Introduction	383	(1)
13.02. The Americans with Disabilities Act	384	(9)
(a) An Overview of Title I	385	(1)
(b) Coverage	386	(6)
(1) Disability	386	(1)
(2) Qualified Individual	387	(1)
(3) Reasonable Accommodation	388	(3)
(4) Employees Who Pose a Threat to Others	391	(1)
(c) Applicant Testing	392	(1)
(d) Enforcement	393	(1)
(e) Forensic Evaluation	393	(2)
(1) Mental Impairment	393	(1)
(2) Qualified to Perform Essential Functions	394	(1)
(3) Reasonable Accommodation	394	(1)
(4) Direct Threat	395	(1)
13.03. Fair Housing Amendments Act	395	(5)
(a) Purpose of the Act	395	(1)
(b) Coverage of the Act	396	(1)
(c) Judicial Interpretation	397	(2)
(1) Zoning and Building Requirements	397	(1)
(2) Notice and Hearing Requirements	398	(1)
(3) Reasonable Accommodation	398	(1)
(4) Direct Threat	399	(1)
(d) Enforcement	399	(1)
(e) Role of the Forensic Examiner	400	(1)
13.04. Social Security Laws	400	(12)
(a) Eligibility Criteria	401	(6)
(1) Adults	401	(5)
(2) Children	406	(1)
(b) The Process for Decisionmaking	407	(1)
(c) Evaluation of Adults	408	(3)
(d) Evaluation of Children	411	(1)
13.05. Conclusion	412	(1)
Bibliography	412	(5)
Part IV. Children and Families	417	(102)
Chapter 14. Juvenile Delinquency	417	(24)
14.01. Introduction	417	(1)
14.02. The Rise and Fall of the "Therapeutic" Juvenile Court	418	(3)
(a) Juvenile Justice in the Common Law	418	(1)
(b) The Social and Legal Segregation of Youth	418	(1)
(c) The Invention of the Juvenile Court	419	(1)
(d) The Fall of the Rehabilitative Ideal	419	(1)
(e) The Shrinking of the Juvenile Court	420	(1)
14.03. The Nature of the Juvenile Process	421	(5)
(a) A Typical Statute	421	(2)
(1) Purpose	421	(1)
(2) Jurisdiction	421	(1)
(3) Procedure	422	(1)
(b) Directions for Reform	423	(1)
(1) Community-Based Systems	423	(1)
(2) Juvenile Justice Standards	424	(1)
(3) Abolition or Reform?	424	(2)
14.04. The Mental Health Professional's Role in Juvenile Court	426	(3)
(a) Criminal Forensic Questions	426	(1)
(b) Amenability to Treatment	426	(2)
(c) Consultation	428	(1)
14.05. The Nature of the Evaluation	429	(4)
(a) The Process of the Evaluation	429	(1)
(b) The Scope of the Evaluation	429	(1)
(1) The Meaning of "Treatment"	429	(2)
(2) Dispositional Alternatives	431	(1)
(3) What Works	431	(2)
14.06. Specific Areas of Evaluation	433	(4)
(a) Family	433	(1)
(1) Reasons for Assessment	433	(1)
(2) Clinical Issues	433	(1)
(b) Peer Relations	434	(1)
(c) Community	434	(1)
(d) Academic and Vocational Skills	435	(1)
(e) Personality Functioning	436	(1)
14.07. Special Juvenile Populations	437	(2)
(a) Very Young Offenders	437	(1)
(b) Sex Offenders	438	(1)
(c) Status Offenders	438	(1)
14.08. Do the Mental Health and Juvenile Systems Belong Together?	439	(1)
Bibliography	440	(1)
Chapter 15. Child Abuse and Neglect	441	(42)
15.01. The Nature of Abuse and Neglect Proceedings	441	(4)
(a) Philosophical Dilemmas	441	(1)
(b) Stages of the Legal Process	441	(1)
(c) General Policy Perspectives	442	(1)
(1) Perspectives on State Intervention	442	(2)
(2) "Neighbors Helping Neighbors": The New Paradigm in Child Protection	444	(1)
15.02. Legal Definitions of Child Maltreatment	445	(2)
(a) Physical Abuse	445	(1)
(b) Physical Neglect	446	(1)
(c) Sexual Abuse	446	(1)
(d) Emotional Abuse and Neglect	446	(1)
(e) Conclusions	447	(1)
15.03. Child Maltreatment as a Clinical Phenomenon	447	(7)
(a) The "Discovery" of Child Abuse	447	(1)
(b) Social Science Definitions	448	(1)
(c) Social Science Perspectives	448	(2)
(d) Factors in the Etiology of Child Maltreatment	450	(3)
(1) Psychological Factors	450	(1)
(2) Social and Economic Factors	451	(2)
(e) Prognosis and Treatment	453	(1)
(1) Treatment of Abusive and Neglecting Parents	453	(1)
(2) Treatment of Abused and Neglected Children	453	(1)
15.04. Clinicians' Involvement in the Legal Process	454	(14)
(a) Investigation	454	(2)
(b) Emergency Decisions	456	(1)
(c) Adjudication	456	(8)
(1) Procedural Issues	456	(3)
(2) Reliability of Hearsay	459	(1)
(3) Competence to Testify	460	(1)
(4) The Case in Chief: Proving Injury and Abuse	461	(1)
(d) Disposition and Postdispositional Review	464	(2)
(e) Termination of Parental Rights	466	(1)
(f) Mediation and Other Alternative Processes	467	(1)
15.05. Special Populations	468	(6)
(a) Parents with Mental Illness	468	(1)
(b) Parents with Mental Retardation	469	(1)
(c) Parents Who Abuse Alcohol	470	(1)
(d) Parents Who Use Illegal Drugs	470	(2)
(e) Biologically Related Foster Parents	472	(2)
15.06. The Technique of Abuse/Neglect Evaluations	474	(5)
(a) Content of the Evaluation	474	(1)
(b) Interviewing the Child	474	(2)
(c) Psychometric Instruments	476	(1)
(d) Anatomically Detailed Dolls	476	(1)
(e) Avoiding Ethical Problems	477	(4)
15.07. Adult Cases Related to Abuse and Neglect	479	(2)
(a) Elder Abuse	478	(1)
(b) Adult Survivors of Child Abuse and Neglect	479	(2)
Bibliography	481	(2)
Chapter 16. Child Custody in Divorce	483	(23)
16.01. The Scope of Clinicians' Involvement in Custody Disputes	483	(4)
(a) Current Involvement	483	(1)
(b) Some Possible Roles	484	(2)
(1) Evaluator and Investigator	484	(1)
(2) Mediator and Intervenor	485	(1)
(c) The American Psychological Association Guidelines	486	(1)
16.02. Standards for Resolution of Custody Disputes	487	(5)
(a) Historic Preferences	487	(1)
(b) The Best-Interests Standard	487	(2)
(c) The Least Detrimental Alternative	489	(1)
(d) The Primary-Caretaker Standard	489	(1)
(e) Joint Custody	490	(1)
(f) Special Populations	490	(1)
(1) Gay and Lesbian Parents	490	(1)
(2) Grandparents and Other Third Parties	491	(1)
(g) The Multiplicity of Issues	491	(1)
16.03. What Do We Know?	492	(7)
(a) Effects of Divorce on Children	492	(2)
(b) Father Custody	494	(1)
(c) Same-Sex Custody	494	(1)
(d) Joint Custody	495	(1)
(e) Special Populations	496	(1)
(f) Children's Participation in Decisionmaking	497	(1)
(1) Law and Empirical Research	497	(1)
(2) Professional Standards and Practices	498	(1)
16.04. The Technique of Custody Evaluations	499	(5)
(a) Auspices: Who Is the Client?	500	(1)
(b) Application of the Psychotherapist-Patient Privilege	501	(1)
(c) Scope of the Evaluation	501	(1)
(d) Traditional Psychological Testing	501	(2)
(e) Specialized Tests	503	(1)
16.05. The Politics of Divorce	504	(1)
Bibliography	505	(1)
Chapter 17. Education and Habilitation	506	(13)
17.01. Introduction	506	(1)
17.02. The Impetus for the IDEA	506	(1)
17.03. The Structure of the IDEA	507	(5)
(a) Substantive Coverage	507	(1)
(1) Disability	507	(1)
(2) Free and Appropriate Education	508	(1)
(3) Related Services	508	(1)
(4) Least Restrictive Environment: Mainstreaming	509	(1)
(b) Procedures under the Act	510	(1)
(1) Identification of Children with Disability	510	(1)
(2) Evaluation of the Child: The Individual Education Plan	510	(1)
(3) Review Procedures	511	(1)
(4) Disciplinary Procedures	511	(1)
17.04. Clinical Evaluation under the Act	512	(3)
(a) Specific Skills to Assess	512	(1)
(b) Information Gathering	513	(1)
(c) Testing	514	(1)
(d) Report and Testimony	514	(1)
Bibliography	515	(4)
Part V. Communicating with the Courts	519	(124)
Chapter 18. Consultation, Report Writing, and Expert Testimony	519	(124)
18.01. Introduction	519	(2)
18.02. Preliminary Consultations	521	(2)
(a) Clarification of Issues	521	(1)
(b) Sharing Information	522	(1)
(c) Preliminary Report of Findings	522	(1)
18.03. Report Writing	523	(3)
(a) Functions of a Forensic Report	523	(1)
(b) General Guidelines for Report Writing	524	(1)
(1) Separate Facts from Inferences	524	(1)
(2) Stay within the Scope of the Referral Question	524	(1)
(3) Avoid Information Over(and under)kill	525	(1)
(4) Minimize Clinical Jargon	526	(1)
18.04. Expert Testimony and the Social Psychology of Persuasion	526	(16)
(a) Deposition	527	(1)
(b) Pretrial Conference	528	(1)
(c) Voir Dire: Qualifying as an Expert	529	(2)
(d) Direct Testimony	531	(1)
(e) Cross-Examination	532	(3)
(1) The "Infallibility Complex" and "God Only Knows" Gambits	532	(1)
(2) "Yes-No" Questioning	533	(1)
(3) The "Unreliable Examination" Gambit	533	(1)
(4) The "Subjective Opinion" Ploy	534	(1)
(5) The "Loaded Question" and "Lawyer as Expert" Ploys	534	(1)
(6) The "Learned Treatise" Assault	534	(1)
(f) Objections and Hypotheticals	535	(2)
(g) Impression Management	537	(1)
(1) Style of Dress	537	(1)
(2) Familiarity with Courtroom Protocol	537	(1)
(3) Speaking to the Jury	537	(1)
(4) Powerful Speech	537	(1)
(5) Maintaining Composure	538	(1)
(6) Conclusion	538	(1)
(h) Lay Attitudes toward Experts	538	(1)
18.05. The Ultimate-Issue Issue	539	(7)
(a) Perceived Importance of Opinions on Ultimate Legal Issues	540	(2)
(b) Pressures to Address Ultimate Legal Issues	542	(1)
(c) Resisting the Ultimate-Issue Question	543	(3)
Bibliography	546	(1)
Chapter 19. Sample Reports	547	(67)
19.01. Introduction	547	(1)
19.02. Competency to Stand Trial [Chapter 6]	548	(7)
(a) Harry Mills Report	548	(1)
(b) Discussion	549	(1)
(c) Warner Premington Report	550	(1)
(d) Discussion	551	(1)
(e) Fordham Rhodes Report	552	(2)
(f) Discussion	554	(1)
19.03. Competency to Plead and Confess [Chapter 5]	555	(3)
(a) Carl Bates Report	555	(3)
(b) Discussion	558	(1)
19.04. Mental State at the Time of the Offense [Chapter 8]	558	(9)
(a) Ed Wertz Report	558	(4)
(b) Discussion	562	(1)
(c) Seth Hedges Report	563	(4)
(d) Discussion	567	(1)
19.05. Sentencing [Chapter 9]	567	(9)
(a) George Sanders Report	567	(4)
(b) Discussion	571	(1)
(c) Lester Thomas Report	572	(4)
(d) Discussion	576	(1)
19.06. Civil Commitment [Chapter 10]	576	(2)
(a) J. Marlar Report	576	(1)
(b) Discussion	577	(1)
19.07. Competency to Handle Finances [Chapter 11]	578	(4)
(a) Dorothy Dyer Report	578	(3)
(b) Discussion	581	(1)
19.08. Workers' Compensation for Mental Injury [Chapter 12]	582	(3)
(a) Lane Cates Report	582	(2)
(b) Discussion	584	(1)
19.09. Reasonable Accommodation under the Americans with Disabilities Act [Chapter 13]	585	(3)
(a) Mike Johnson Report	585	(2)
(b) Discussion	587	(1)
19.10. Transfer to Adult Court [Chapter 14]	588	(6)
(a) Tom Young Report	588	(5)
(b) Discussion	593	(1)
19.11. Dispositional Review [Chapter 15]	594	(6)
(a) George and Gerald Jones Report	594	(5)
(b) Discussion	599	(1)
19.12. Custody [Chapter 16]	600	(8)
(a) The Gonz-Jones Report	600	(7)
(b) Discussion	607	(1)
19.13. Evaluation under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [Chapter 17]	608	(6)
(a) Sam Shay Report	608	(5)
(b) Discussion	613	(1)
Chapter 20. Glossary	614	(29)
20.01. Legal Terms	614	(8)
20.02. Clinical and Research Terms	622	(21)
Notes	643	(138)
Index	781