Pvc Handbook

by Wilkes, C. E.; Summers, J. W.; Daniels, C. A.; Berard, Mark T.

• ISBN13: 9781569903797
• ISBN10: 1569903794
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-08-30
• Publisher: Hanser Pub Inc

Summary

In this single handbook, the editors aim to give a diverse audience of readers a complete account of all aspects of PVC-from monomer manufacture to polymerization; the gamut of such additives as stabilizers, lubricants, plasticizers, impact modifiers, fillers and reinforcing agents; blends and alloys; compounding and processing; characterization; combustion resistance and weatherability; product engineering design; applications; environmental and safety; and finally the PVC industry dynamics. This handbook contains both practical formulation information as well as a mechanistic view of why PVC behaves as it does.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	v
Dedication	ix
Preface	xi
Introduction	1	(18)
James W. Summers
Chemistry and Physical Structure	1	(5)
Raw Materials	1	(1)
Chlorine Content and Combustion Resistance	2	(1)
Polymerization Morphology	3	(1)
Vinyl's Unique Melt Processing	3	(1)
Properties Depend on Formulation and Processing History	3	(1)
Vinyl as a Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE)	4	(2)
PVC's Solubility Parameter and Ease of Compounding	6	(1)
Vinyl's Proud History	6	(5)
PVC Meeting Society's Needs	6	(1)
The PVC Industry as a Responsible Citizen	7	(1)
Historic Events	7	(1)
Chlorine	7	(1)
Vinyl Chloride	7	(1)
Polymerization	7	(1)
Early Processing	8	(1)
Plasticized PVC as a TPE	8	(1)
Wire and Cable	8	(1)
Pipe and Fittings	9	(1)
Siding, Windows, and Packaging	10	(1)
Society of Plastics Engineers, Vinyl Division	10	(1)
Weatherability	10	(1)
Vinyl Chloride Exposure and Responsible Care	10	(1)
Recycling	11	(1)
Commercial Significance	11	(8)
Growth of the Vinyl Industry	11	(2)
PVC as a Major Thermoplastic	13	(1)
PVC as a Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE)	14	(1)
PVC as an Engineering Thermoplastic	15	(4)
Vinyl Chloride Monomer	19	(38)
Joseph A. Cowfer
Overview	19	(1)
Introduction	19	(2)
Physical Properties	21	(1)
Reactions	21	(5)
Polymerization	21	(1)
Substitution at the Carbon-Chlorine Bond	22	(1)
Oxidation	23	(1)
Addition	24	(1)
Photochemistry	25	(1)
Pyrolysis	25	(1)
Manufacture	26	(7)
Direct Chlorination of Ethylene	29	(1)
Oxychlorination of Ethylene	30	(3)
Purification of Ethylene Dichloride for Pyrolysis	33	(1)
Ethylene Dichloride Pyrolysis to Vinyl Chloride	34	(1)
By-Product Disposal	35	(1)
Economic Aspects	36	(5)
Environmental Considerations	41	(1)
Technology Trends	42	(3)
Specifications	45	(1)
Health and Safety Factors	46	(1)
Uses	47	(10)
Polymerization	57	(38)
Donald E. Witenhafer
David J. Poledna
Basic Considerations	57	(3)
Suspension Process Overview	60	(6)
Polymerization	60	(4)
Stripping	64	(1)
Centrifugation	65	(1)
Drying and Screening	66	(1)
Mass Process Overview	66	(3)
Special Considerations	69	(10)
Polymerization Kinetics	69	(1)
Resin Particle Structure and Formation	70	(2)
Agitation and Dispersants	72	(2)
Vinyl Chloride Recovery	74	(1)
Increasing Reactor Productivity	74	(3)
Chain Defects and Heat Stability	77	(1)
Molecular Weight Extension	78	(1)
Co-Polymerization	79	(1)
Summary	79	(1)
Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization	80	(3)
Microsuspension Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared to Emulsion and Suspension Polymerization	81	(1)
Procedure and Variations	81	(1)
Emulsion Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared to Microsuspension and Suspension PVC Polymerization	82	(1)
Procedure for Batch Polymerization	83	(1)
Other Considerations for Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization of PVC	83	(2)
Surfactant System	83	(1)
Initiators	84	(1)
Water	84	(1)
Copolymers	84	(1)
Primary Particle Size Microsuspension	85	(2)
Primary Particle Size Emulsion	85	(2)
Molecular Weight	87	(1)
Polymerization Equipment Operation	87	(3)
Homogenizers	87	(1)
Reaction Vessels	87	(1)
Agitation	88	(1)
Heat Removal	89	(1)
Downstream Equipment	90	(2)
Residual Vinyl Chloride Removal (Stripping)	90	(1)
Drying	91	(1)
Grinding	92	(1)
Packaging	92	(1)
Product Quality	92	(1)
Safety and Environment	93	(2)
PVC Stabilizers and Lubricants	95	(78)
Thomas C. Jennings
William H. Starnes, Jr.
Introduction	95	(1)
World PVC Stabilizer and Lubricant Markets	96	(1)
Structure and Degradation of PVC	97	(4)
The General Stabilization of PVC	101	(1)
The General Lubrication of PVC	101	(1)
Lead Stabilizers	102	(6)
Lead Stabilizer Chronology	103	(1)
Lead Stabilizer Manufacturing	104	(1)
Lead Stabilization Mechanisms	105	(1)
Lead Stabilizers of Commercial Importance	105	(1)
Lead Stabilizer Strengths and Weaknesses	106	(1)
Lead Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels	107	(1)
Organotin Stabilizers	108	(8)
Organotin Stabilizer Chronology	108	(2)
Organotin Stabilizer Manufacturing	110	(2)
Organotin Stabilizer Mechanism	112	(1)
Organotin Stabilizers of Commercial Importance	112	(1)
Organotin Stabilizer Synergists	113	(2)
Lubrication of Organotin Stabilizers	115	(1)
Organotin Stabilizer Strengths and Weaknesses	115	(1)
Organotin Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels	115	(1)
Mixed Metal Stabilizers	116	(13)
Mixed Metal Chronology	116	(2)
Mixed Metal Manufacturing	118	(2)
Mixed Metal Stabilizer Mechanisms	120	(1)
Mixed Metal Stabilizer Synergists	120	(3)
Epoxy Esters	123	(1)
Phosphite Esters	124	(2)
Minor Organic Synergists	126	(1)
Inorganic Acid Scavengers	126	(1)
Mixed Metal Strengths and Weaknesses	126	(1)
Mixed Metal Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels	127	(2)
PVC Lubricants	129	(11)
Internal and External Lubricants	129	(1)
Three Category Lubricant Classification	130	(2)
Lubricant-Lubricant Interactions	132	(2)
Stabilizer Lubricant Interactions	134	(1)
Lubricating Stabilizers	135	(1)
Stabilizer Lubricant One-Packs	135	(2)
Lubricant Sources	137	(1)
Petroleum Waxes	137	(1)
Synthetic Hydrocarbon Waxes	137	(1)
Mineral Waxes	138	(1)
Natural Triglycerides	139	(1)
Testing of Stabilizers and Lubricants	140	(5)
Oven Stability Tests	141	(1)
Press Clarity and Color	142	(1)
Dynamic Milling	142	(1)
Torque Rheometer Testing	142	(1)
Plate-Out Test	143	(1)
Volatility Tests	144	(1)
Compatibility Tests	145	(1)
Stabilizer-Stabilizer-Incompatibilities	145	(1)
Suppliers of PVC Stabilizers and Lubricants	145	(1)
PVC Stabilizer Environmental Concerns	146	(9)
General Environmental Concerns	147	(1)
Lead Environmental Concerns	148	(1)
Cadmium Environmental Concerns	149	(1)
Barium Environmental Concerns	149	(1)
Organotin Environmental Concerns	150	(1)
Stabilizers Based Upon Food Additives	151	(4)
Chemistry of Degradation and Stabilization	155	(1)
Mechanism of Thermal Dehydrochlorination	156	(5)
Thermally Labile Structural Defects	156	(1)
Hypothetical Labile Structures	157	(1)
Polyene Elongation	158	(1)
Ion-Pair/Quasiionic Mechanism	158	(1)
Other Proposed Mechanisms	159	(1)
Autocatalysis	160	(1)
Thermal Stabilization	161	(5)
General Mechanisms	161	(1)
Stabilizers Containing Metals	162	(1)
Organic Stabilizers	163	(1)
Costabilizers	163	(1)
Principal Stabilizers (Ester Thiols)	164	(2)
Acknowledgments	166	(7)
Plasticizers	173	(28)
Leonard G. Krauskopf
Allen Godwin
Introduction	173	(1)
Historical Developments	173	(1)
Mechanisms of Plasticization	174	(2)
Types of Plasticizers	176	(6)
Plasticizer Performance	182	(4)
Plasticizer Efficiency	186	(1)
Low Temperature	187	(3)
Permanence (Transience) of Plasticizers	190	(1)
Solvency, Miscibility, or Compatibility	191	(1)
Processability	192	(1)
Plasticizer Markets	193	(2)
Health Aspects of Plasticizers	195	(2)
Future of Plasticizers	197	(4)
Processing Aids and Impact Modifiers	201	(34)
Carlos A. Cruz-Ramos
John R. Patterson
Processing Aids	201	(11)
Introduction	201	(1)
Development	201	(2)
Role of Processing Aids in PVC	203	(1)
Promotion of Homogeneous Melt	203	(2)
Melt Homogeneity	205	(2)
Melt Strength, Extensibility, and Elasticity	207	(1)
Benefits of Processing Aids in PVC	207	(1)
Extrusion	207	(1)
Foam Extrusion	208	(1)
Calendering/Thermoforming	209	(1)
Injection Molding	209	(2)
Blow Molding	211	(1)
Commercial Sources of Processing Aids	212	(1)
Impact Modifiers	212	(23)
Introduction	212	(1)
Development	213	(1)
Impact and Toughness Testing	214	(1)
Methodology	214	(4)
Role of Fusion (Gelation)	218	(2)
Impact Modification Theory	220	(4)
Impact Modifiers -- Function, Features, and Types	224	(2)
Predefined Particle Size Modifiers	226	(1)
Intermediate Modifiers	227	(1)
Modifiers with Non-Predefined Particle Size	228	(1)
Other Types of Modification	229	(1)
Impact Modifier Selection	229	(2)
Commercial Sources	231	(4)
Fillers and Reinforcing Agents	235	(42)
Joel M. Zazyczny
Laurent M. Matuana
Mineral Fillers in PVC Matrix	235	(5)
Introduction	235	(1)
Mineral Properties	235	(1)
Particle Properties	236	(1)
Particle Size Distribution	236	(1)
Surface Area	237	(1)
Optical Characteristics	238	(1)
Color	238	(1)
Aspect Ratio	238	(1)
Specific Gravity/Density	239	(1)
Mohs Hardness	239	(1)
Particle Packing Fraction	240	(1)
Commercial Mineral Fillers and Reinforcing Agents	240	(4)
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)	240	(1)
Kaolin (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O)	241	(1)
Talc (Mg3SiO10(OH)2)	241	(1)
Mica (K2M(Al2Si6O20)(OH)4)	242	(1)
Barite (BaSO4)	242	(1)
Wollastonite (CaSiO3)	243	(1)
Calcium Sulfate (CaSO2 2 H2O)	243	(1)
Nepheline Syenite/Feldspar	244	(1)
Glass Microspheres	244	(1)
Applications and Development in PVC Compounds	244	(4)
Surface Treatment and Coupling Agent Technology	246	(1)
Stearates	247	(1)
Zirconates, Titanates, and Zirco-Aluminates	247	(1)
Silanes	247	(1)
Natural Fillers in PVC Matrix	248	(29)
Introduction	248	(2)
Characteristics of Natural Fibers	250	(1)
Wood Structure	250	(1)
Chemical Composition of Wood	251	(2)
PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites	253	(1)
Influence of Processing Conditions	253	(1)
Effects of Additives Used in the Formulations	254	(10)
Foaming of PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites	264	(5)
Durability of PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites	269	(8)
PVC Blends and Alloys	277	(12)
Donald E. Witenhafer
Introduction	277	(2)
High Heat Distortion Temperature PVC Blends	279	(2)
Glutarimide Copolymers	279	(1)
ABS Blends	279	(1)
Suprel	280	(1)
Styrene/Maleic Anhydride (SMA) Copolymer Blends	281	(1)
Flexible PVC Blends	281	(4)
Butadiene Acrylonitrile Copolymer Blends	281	(4)
Polyketone Blends	285	(1)
Compatibilizers	285	(1)
Summary	286	(3)
Compounding Processes	289	(26)
Rabeh Elleithy
James W. Summers
Introduction	289	(1)
Connection Between Polymerization and Compounding	289	(4)
Powder Mixing of PVC	293	(5)
Role of High Speed Mixing	293	(1)
Agglomeration Problems with High Speed Mixing	293	(2)
Solutions to the Agglomeration Problems in High Speed Mixing	295	(1)
Powder Flow and Packing	295	(1)
Vinyl Chloride Monomer Removal	296	(1)
Plasticizer Addition	296	(2)
Distribution and Dispersion of Ingredients	298	(8)
Effective Dispersion	298	(1)
Interfacial Tension on Dispersion	298	(1)
Compatibility of Materials for Dispersion	298	(2)
Elongational Work for Dispersion	300	(2)
Temperature Requirements	302	(3)
Avoiding Shear Heating	305	(1)
Powder to Product by Twin Screw Extrusion	306	(1)
Powder to Compound with an Internal Batch Mixer (Banbury) and Mill	307	(2)
Powder to Compound in an Internal Continuous Mixer and Mill	309	(1)
Powder to Compound by Single Screw Compounding	310	(1)
Powder to Compound by Reciprocating Single Screw Compounding	311	(1)
Powder to Compound by Twin Screw Compounding	312	(2)
Summary	314	(1)
Flexible PVC	315	(50)
William Coaker
Origins	315	(1)
Types of PVC Resins Used in Flexible Applications	316	(2)
Particulate Architecture of PVC Resins Used in Flexible Products	318	(3)
Favored Processing Methods for Flexible PVC	321	(2)
Designing Flexible PVC Compounds	323	(6)
Formulation Development	323	(1)
General Problems in Formulation Development	324	(3)
Properties Often Specified for Semi-Rigid and Flexible PVC Products	327	(2)
Additives Used in Flexible PVC Compounds	329	(12)
Liquid Plasticizers and Solid Flexibilizers	329	(2)
Lead-Based Stabilizers	331	(2)
Mixed Metal Stabilizers	333	(1)
Fillers	334	(3)
Lubricants	337	(1)
Light Stabilizers	337	(2)
Flame Retardants and Smoke Suppressants	339	(2)
Other Additives	341	(1)
Markets for Flexible and Semi-Rigid PVC	341	(15)
Specifications for and Quality Control Testing on Flexible PVC Products	356	(4)
Tensile Properties after Oven Aging	356	(1)
Thermal Stability by Torque Rheometer	357	(1)
Melt Viscosity	358	(1)
Hardness	358	(1)
Low Temperature Brittleness	358	(1)
Plasticizer Compatibility	359	(1)
Moisture	359	(1)
Poor Dispersion, Contamination, and Resin Gels	360	(1)
Small-Scale Defects and Surface Phenomena	360	(1)
Regulatory Issues	360	(1)
Future Projections	360	(5)
Specialty Grade PVC Resins	365	(30)
Ashok Shah
David Poledna
Andy Olah
Dispersion and Blending Resins	365	(7)
Powder Process Resins	372	(1)
PVC for Powder Coating and Powder Molding Systems	372	(1)
Specialty Suspension PVC Resins	373	(6)
Ultra High Molecular Weight Resins	374	(1)
Ultra High Absorptive Resin	375	(2)
Deglossing or Dulling Resins	377	(1)
Specialty Grade Emulsion Resins	378	(1)
Copolymer Resins	379	(3)
Conventional VCl/VAc Copolymers	380	(1)
Solution Polymers	380	(1)
Elastomeric Resins	381	(1)
Overview of Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Materials, Products, and Applications	382	(13)
Introduction	382	(1)
The Chlorination Process	383	(3)
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds	386	(1)
End Use Applications for Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds	386	(1)
Potable Water Distribution at Elevated Temperatures	386	(4)
Industrial Handling of Corrosive Fluids at Elevated Temperatures	390	(1)
CPVC-Based Fire Sprinkler Systems	391	(2)
CPVC Based Non-Pipe Products that Offer Alternatives to Other High Temperature Thermoplastics	393	(1)
Summary	393	(2)
Physical Properties and Characterization of PVC	395	(24)
Charles A. Daniels
Introduction	395	(1)
Characterization at the Molecular Level	395	(5)
Characterization at the Particulate Level	400	(3)
Characterization of Vinyl Compounds	403	(10)
Typical Characterization Requirements in the Laboratory	413	(2)
Miscellaneous Properties	415	(1)
Summary	415	(4)
Flammability and Fire Performance	419	(64)
Marcelo M. Hirschler
Introduction	419	(1)
Thermal Degradation and Thermal Decomposition	419	(4)
Thermal Decomposition and Fire Properties	423	(1)
Fire Performance: General	424	(1)
Individual Fire Properties and Associated Test Methods	425	(40)
Ignitability	425	(14)
Ease of Extinction	439	(2)
Flammability	441	(2)
Flame Spread	443	(6)
Heat Release	449	(9)
Smoke Obscuration	458	(7)
Fire Retardance and Smoke Suppression	465	(18)
Smoke Toxicity	468	(2)
Fire Modeling and Fire Hazard Assessment	470	(7)
Appendix 1 -- Fire Safety Definitions	477	(4)
Appendix 2 -- Meaning of Major Cone Calorimeter Fire Properties	481	(2)
Weathering of PVC Compounds	483	(28)
Elvira Rabinovitch
Introduction	483	(1)
Weathering Mechanism	483	(4)
Weatherability Comparison Between PVC and Other Polymers	487	(2)
Weathering Testing Methods	489	(2)
Outdoor Exposure	489	(1)
Accelerated Laboratory Exposure	489	(1)
Outdoor Exposure Standards	490	(1)
Factors Affecting Outdoor Performance of PVC	491	(14)
Color Stability	491	(1)
Stabilizers	491	(2)
Pigments	493	(2)
Effect of Calcium Carbonate on PVC Weatherability	495	(1)
Effect of Process Conditions on Color Weatherability	496	(1)
Impact Retention	497	(1)
PVC Resin	497	(1)
Impact Modifier	498	(1)
Stabilizer	499	(1)
Filler	499	(1)
Compound Processing Conditions	500	(1)
Dimensional Stability	501	(1)
Material Properties	501	(3)
Product Design Considerations	504	(1)
Internal Stresses in the Profile	505	(1)
Industry Trends and Recommendations	505	(1)
US Industry Standards	506	(2)
Conclusions	508	(3)
Fabrication Processes	511	(90)
James L. Throne
Introduction	511	(2)
Rigid PVC Processes	513	(55)
Extrusion	513	(1)
Single-Screw Extruder	513	(4)
Twin-Screw Extruder	517	(2)
Cylindrical versus Conical Twin-Screw Extruders	519	(1)
Melt Flow Path to the Die	520	(1)
Gear Pump	521	(1)
General Die Design	522	(6)
Foam Extrusion	528	(2)
Downstream Calibration and Take-Off	530	(1)
Calendering	531	(3)
Injection Molding	534	(1)
Screw Injection Molding Machine	535	(4)
Injection Mold Design2	539	(4)
Blow Molding	543	(1)
Extrusion Blow Molding	543	(6)
Injection Blow Molding	549	(1)
Thermoforming	550	(1)
Thin-Gauge Thermoforming	551	(9)
Heavy-Gauge Thermoforming	560	(5)
Other Heavy-Gauge PVC-Type Sheet Forming	565	(1)
Compression Molding with Radio-Frequency Heating	566	(2)
Composite Processing	568	(11)
Fillers	568	(3)
Foams	571	(4)
Effect of Fillers and Reinforcements on Viscosity	575	(2)
Effect of Dissolved Gases on Viscosity	577	(1)
Filled and Reinforced Foams -- A Comment	577	(1)
The Role of Additives	578	(1)
Processing PVC-Containing Polymers	579	(2)
Processing Chlorinated PVC	579	(1)
PVC-ABS	580	(1)
PVC-PMMA	580	(1)
Plasticized PVC Processes	581	(12)
Liquid Processing	582	(1)
Coating	582	(1)
Slush Molding	583	(1)
Rotational Molding	583	(4)
Soft Processing	587	(1)
Flow Molding	587	(1)
Drysol Rotational Molding	588	(1)
Lower-Durometer or Semi-Rigid Processing	589	(1)
Extrusion	589	(1)
Blow Molding	590	(1)
Injection Molding	590	(1)
Blown Film	591	(2)
Joining and Assembly	593	(8)
Dielectric Welding	593	(1)
Solvent Welding	594	(1)
Thermal Welding	594	(1)
Heat Staking	595	(1)
Mechanical Fastening	595	(1)
Electromagnetic Welding	595	(6)
Product Engineering Design	601	(18)
Rabeh Elleithy
Introduction	601	(1)
Making a Good Product	601	(2)
Designing a Good Injection Molding Product	603	(1)
Processing Effect on PVC Products	604	(4)
Material Properties of PVC Molded Products	608	(6)
End-Use Effects on PVC Molded Products	614	(1)
Concluding Remarks	615	(4)
PVC Applications, their Standards and Regulations, and Starting Formulations	619	(20)
Mark T. Berard
Introduction	619	(3)
Applications Information Sources	621	(1)
Organizations	621	(1)
Standards and Codes	621	(1)
Pipe	622	(2)
Organizations	623	(1)
Water Service Distribution	623	(1)
Drain, Waste, and Vent	623	(1)
Starting Point Formulations	624	(1)
Construction	624	(5)
Siding	625	(1)
Windows and Doors	626	(1)
Fencing and Railing	627	(1)
Decking	627	(1)
Flooring	628	(1)
Single Ply Roofing	628	(1)
Other Construction	629	(1)
Wallcovering	629	(1)
Landfill Liners	629	(1)
Expansion Joints	629	(1)
Consumer Goods and Home Furnishings	629	(3)
Flexibles	631	(1)
Packaging	632	(1)
Electrical/Electronic	632	(3)
Conduit	634	(1)
Transportation/Automotive	635	(1)
Other Applications	635	(1)
Medical	635	(1)
Coatings	635	(1)
Organizations	636	(3)
PVC Environmental, Health, Safety	639	(40)
D'Lane Wisner
James Lewis
Fred Krause
Ronald Kaminski
Introduction	639	(1)
Industry Size and Safety Record	639	(1)
Overview of Monomer and Polymer Regulatory Issues (EDC/VCM/PVC)	640	(4)
U.S. Environmental Releases	641	(1)
Ambient Air Concentrations in Communities Near Manufacturing Facilities	641	(1)
Workplace Exposure	641	(1)
Dioxins	642	(2)
Compounding Processes	644	(12)
Raw Materials	644	(1)
PVC Resins -- Safe Handling of PVC Resins	644	(1)
CPVC	645	(1)
Stabilizers	646	(1)
Plasticizers	647	(2)
Operations	649	(1)
Processing and Materials Handling -- Resin and Compounding	649	(3)
Workplace Exposure and Emissions	652	(1)
Safety	653	(1)
PVC Dust	653	(1)
Fabrication	653	(1)
General	653	(1)
Equipment Hazards	654	(2)
Product Applications	656	(14)
Building and Construction	656	(1)
Pipe and Fittings	656	(2)
Siding, Windows, and Fencing/Decking/Railing	658	(4)
Packaging	662	(2)
Medical Products	664	(1)
Automotive	665	(1)
Toys	666	(1)
Combustion Safety and Toxicity	667	(3)
End of Life	670	(9)
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle	670	(3)
Incineration	673	(1)
Landfill	673	(6)
PVC Industry Structure and Dynamics	679	(22)
David Smalley
Supply and Producers	679	(7)
Global Regional Supply	679	(1)
Leading Producers	679	(2)
Producer Back Integration	681	(2)
Producer Forward Integration	683	(2)
Industry Restructuring	685	(1)
Demand	686	(9)
Global Regional Demand	686	(1)
Per Capita Consumption	687	(1)
Demand by End Use	687	(2)
Market Status of Specialty Resins	689	(1)
Merchant Resin vs. Compound Sales	690	(1)
Impact of Regulations	691	(1)
Interregional Trade	692	(1)
Growth Forecast until 2010	692	(3)
Capacity Needs	695	(1)
Pricing and Economics	695	(6)
Resin Price Structure	695	(1)
Price Cyclicality	696	(1)
Price Determinants	697	(1)
PVC Resin Cost Components	698	(2)
New Plant Capital Investment	700	(1)
Index	701