Preface | p. xiii |
Preface to the 2000 Printing | p. xvi |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Historical Roots | p. 2 |
The Early Years | p. 2 |
The Origins of Modern Shielding Practice | p. 4 |
Modern Developments | p. 4 |
Regulatory Development | p. 6 |
Radiation Shielding Institutions | p. 7 |
Professional Societies and Journals | p. 8 |
Radiation Protection Institutions | p. 8 |
United Nations Organizations | p. 9 |
Governmental Organizations in the United States | p. 9 |
Important Sources of Shielding Information | p. 10 |
Final Remarks | p. 12 |
Characterization of Radiation Fields and Sources | p. 15 |
Directions and Solid Angles | p. 16 |
Fundamental Radiation Field Variables | p. 17 |
Fluence and Fluence Rate | p. 17 |
Net Flow and Net Flow Rate | p. 18 |
Other Definitions | p. 19 |
Directional Properties of the Radiation Field | p. 19 |
Properties of the Fluence | p. 19 |
Transformation of Variables | p. 20 |
Angular Properties of the Flow and Flow Rate | p. 21 |
Representations of Angular Dependence | p. 22 |
General Specification of Radiation Sources | p. 23 |
Distributed and Discrete Variables | p. 25 |
Interaction of Radiation with Matter | p. 28 |
Interaction Coefficient | p. 28 |
Microscopic Cross Section | p. 30 |
Conservation Laws for Scattering Reactions | p. 31 |
Conservation of Momentum | p. 31 |
Conservation of Energy | p. 32 |
Application of the Conservation Laws | p. 33 |
Scattering of Photons by Free Electrons | p. 33 |
Scattering of Neutrons by Atomic Nuclei | p. 34 |
Limiting Cases in Classical Mechanics of Elastic Scattering | p. 38 |
Elastic Scattering of Electrons and Heavy Charged Particles | p. 39 |
Cross Sections for Photon Interactions | p. 39 |
Thomson Cross Section for Incoherent Scattering | p. 40 |
Klein-Nishina Cross Section for Incoherent Scattering | p. 40 |
Incoherent Scattering Cross Sections for Bound Electrons | p. 41 |
Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering | p. 42 |
Photoelectric Effect | p. 44 |
Pair Production | p. 45 |
Photon Attenuation Coefficients | p. 45 |
Compton Absorption and Scattering Cross Sections | p. 46 |
Photoelectric Absorption Cross Section | p. 47 |
Absorption Cross Section for Pair Production | p. 48 |
Corrections for Radiative Energy Loss | p. 48 |
Neutron Interactions | p. 49 |
Classification of Types of Interactions | p. 50 |
Cross Sections for Neutron Scattering | p. 56 |
Average Energy Transfer in Neutron Scattering | p. 58 |
Radiative Capture of Neutrons | p. 60 |
Charged-Particle Interactions | p. 61 |
Collisional Energy Loss | p. 62 |
Electron Radiative Energy Loss | p. 67 |
Charged-Particle Range | p. 69 |
Residual-Range Concept | p. 72 |
Electron Radiation Yield | p. 72 |
Common Radiation Sources Encountered in Shield Design | p. 80 |
Neutron Sources | p. 80 |
Fission Neutrons | p. 80 |
Photoneutrons | p. 84 |
Neutrons from ([alpha], n) Reactions | p. 86 |
Activation Neutrons | p. 91 |
Fusion Neutrons | p. 92 |
Sources of Gamma Photons | p. 92 |
Radioactive Sources | p. 92 |
Prompt Fission Gamma Photons | p. 93 |
Gamma Photons from Fission Products | p. 94 |
Capture Gamma Photons | p. 101 |
Gamma Photons from Inelastic Neutron Scattering | p. 103 |
Activation Gamma Photons | p. 103 |
Annihilation Radiation | p. 104 |
Sources of X Rays | p. 105 |
Characteristic X Rays | p. 105 |
Bremsstrahlung | p. 108 |
X-Ray Machines | p. 111 |
Photon and Neutron Response Functions | p. 121 |
Dosimetric Quantities | p. 121 |
Energy Imparted, Specific Energy, and Lineal Energy | p. 123 |
Deterministic Quantities | p. 123 |
Absorbed Dose | p. 124 |
Kerma | p. 124 |
Exposure | p. 124 |
Linear Energy Transfer | p. 125 |
Dose Equivalent Quantities | p. 126 |
Quality Factor | p. 126 |
Concept of Radiation Response Function | p. 129 |
Local Response Functions for Point Targets | p. 130 |
Charged-Particle Equilibrium | p. 131 |
Local Response Functions for Neutrons | p. 134 |
Local Response Functions for Photons | p. 137 |
Photon Energy Deposition Coefficients | p. 137 |
Photon Kerma, Absorbed Dose, and Dose Equivalent | p. 139 |
Photon Exposure | p. 141 |
Selection of Proper Mass Energy Deposition Coefficients | p. 141 |
Response Functions for the Human as Target | p. 144 |
Characterization of Ambient Radiation | p. 144 |
Response Functions Based on Simple Geometric Phantoms | p. 145 |
Response Functions Based on Anthropomorphic Phantoms | p. 147 |
Comparison of Response Functions | p. 149 |
Basic Methods for Radiation Dose Calculations | p. 155 |
Uncollided Radiation | p. 156 |
Exponential Attenuations | p. 156 |
Mean-Free-Path Length | p. 157 |
Uncollided Dose from a Point Source | p. 157 |
Point Kernel for the Uncollided Dose | p. 160 |
Uncollided Doses from Distributed Sources | p. 161 |
Line Source | p. 161 |
Disk Source | p. 164 |
Rectangular Area Source | p. 167 |
Spherical Surface Source | p. 169 |
Frustrum of a Cone | p. 169 |
Infinite Slab Source | p. 170 |
Cylindrical Volume Source | p. 171 |
Point-Kernel Concept for Total Dose | p. 173 |
Dose in Terms of the Green's Function of Transport Theory | p. 173 |
Point Kernel for the Total Dose | p. 174 |
Isotropic Detector Without Spatial Dependence | p. 175 |
Infinite Homogeneous Medium | p. 175 |
Examples of Point Kernels | p. 176 |
Generalized Method for an Infinite Homogeneous Medium | p. 177 |
Volumetric Sources | p. 178 |
Absorbed Fraction and Reduction Factor | p. 180 |
Advantages of the Generalized Approach | p. 181 |
Limiting Source or Target Volumes | p. 182 |
Reciprocity Theorem | p. 182 |
Extension to Nonuniform and Surface Sources | p. 183 |
Infinite Cylindrical Sources | p. 184 |
Calculation of Geometric Factors | p. 185 |
Analytical Calculation of Geometry Factors | p. 185 |
Examples of Geometry Factors and Point-Pair Distributions | p. 185 |
Uncollided Dose Examples Using Geometry Factors | p. 188 |
Monte Carlo Evaluation of Geometry Factors and Point-Pair Distance Distributions | p. 189 |
Multiregion Geometries | p. 191 |
Basic Geometry Factors for One-Dimensional Problems | p. 192 |
Examples of Multiple Regions | p. 193 |
Effect of Density Variations | p. 195 |
Theorems for Density Variations | p. 196 |
Point Kernels in Media with Density Variations | p. 198 |
Modified Point-Pair Distance Distributions | p. 199 |
Modified Geometry Factors | p. 199 |
Example of a Modified Point-Pair Distance Distribution | p. 200 |
Example Problem Using Modified Geometry Factors | p. 200 |
Geometric Transformations | p. 203 |
Circular Area (Disk)-to-Point Source Transformation | p. 203 |
Volume-to-Surface Source Transformation | p. 204 |
Special Techniques for Photons | p. 214 |
Photon Buildup-Factor Concept | p. 215 |
Isotropic, Monoenergetic Sources in Infinite Media | p. 215 |
Comparison of Buildup Factors for Point and Plane Sources | p. 218 |
Empirical Approximations for Point-Source Buildup Factors | p. 220 |
Point-Kernel Applications of Buildup Factors | p. 223 |
Buildup Factors for Heterogeneous Media | p. 225 |
Boundary Effects in Finite Media | p. 225 |
Treatment of Stratified Media | p. 227 |
Broad-Beam Attenuation of Photons | p. 229 |
Attenuation Factors for Monoenergetic Photon Beams | p. 229 |
Attenuation of Oblique Beams of Monoenergetic Photons | p. 231 |
Attenuation Factors for X-Ray Beams | p. 231 |
The Half-Value Thickness | p. 234 |
Photon Albedo Concept | p. 235 |
Differential Number Albedo | p. 236 |
Integrals of Albedo Functions | p. 237 |
Application of the Albedo Method | p. 237 |
Single-Scatter Albedo | p. 239 |
Approximation for the Single-Scatter Dose Albedo | p. 240 |
Chilton-Huddleston Formula | p. 240 |
Photon Albedo Data | p. 241 |
Photon Streaming Through Ducts | p. 242 |
Characterization of Incident Radiation | p. 244 |
Line-of-Sight Component for Straight Ducts | p. 245 |
Wall-Penetration Component for Straight Ducts | p. 248 |
Single-Scatter Wall-Reflection Component | p. 248 |
Transmission of Gamma Rays Through Two-Legged Rectangular Ducts | p. 250 |
Shield Heterogeneities | p. 252 |
Limiting Case for Small Discontinuities | p. 253 |
Small Randomly Distributed Discontinuities | p. 253 |
Large Well-Defined Heterogeneities | p. 255 |
Gamma-Ray Skyshine | p. 256 |
Open Silo Example | p. 257 |
Shielded Skyshine Sources | p. 259 |
Special Techniques for Neutrons | p. 269 |
Differences Between Neutron and Photon Calculations | p. 271 |
Buildup Factors | p. 271 |
Neutron Dose Units | p. 272 |
Fission Neutron Attenuation by Hydrogen | p. 273 |
Removal Cross Sections | p. 279 |
Extensions of the Removal-Cross-Section Model | p. 282 |
Fast-Neutron Attenuation Without Hydrogen | p. 288 |
Calculation of the Intermediate and Thermal Fluences | p. 291 |
Diffusion Theory for Thermal Neutron Calculations | p. 291 |
Fermi Age Treatment for Thermal and Intermediate-Energy Neutrons | p. 293 |
Removal-Diffusion Techniques | p. 295 |
Capture-Gamma-Photon Attenuation | p. 300 |
Response from Uncollided Photons | p. 303 |
Response from Scattered Photons | p. 304 |
Neutron Shielding with Concrete | p. 304 |
Concrete Slab Shields | p. 307 |
Neutron Albedo | p. 312 |
Fast Neutron Albedo | p. 312 |
Intermediate-Energy Neutron Albedo | p. 315 |
Thermal Neutron Albedo | p. 317 |
Emission of Secondary Photons During Neutron Reflection | p. 317 |
Duct Streaming for Neutrons | p. 318 |
Straight Ducts | p. 318 |
Ducts with Bends | p. 320 |
Empirical and Experimental Results | p. 322 |
Neutron Skyshine | p. 322 |
Special Techniques for Charged Particles | p. 333 |
Introduction | p. 333 |
Alpha and Beta Decay | p. 333 |
Alpha Decay | p. 333 |
Beta Decay | p. 334 |
Spatial Distribution of the Absorbed Dose | p. 336 |
Point and Plane Kernels Defined | p. 336 |
Electron and Beta-Particle Dose Distributions | p. 338 |
Applications of the Point-Kernel | p. 342 |
Line Source of Electrons | p. 342 |
Plane Isotropic Source of Electrons | p. 344 |
Volume Source of Electrons | p. 347 |
Energy Spectrum of the Fluence | p. 348 |
CSDA Approximation | p. 349 |
Fluence Energy Spectra for Electron Sources | p. 349 |
Deterministic Transport Theory | p. 355 |
Transport Equation | p. 355 |
Explicit Form for the Three Basic Geometries | p. 359 |
Integral Form of the Transport Equation | p. 361 |
Transport Equation for Photons | p. 365 |
Transport Equation for Neutrons | p. 368 |
Implications of the Transport Equation | p. 371 |
Existence and Uniqueness | p. 371 |
Spatially Uniform Flux Density | p. 371 |
Plane-Density Variations | p. 372 |
Scaling of Radiation Fields | p. 374 |
Volume-to-Surface Source Transformation | p. 375 |
Approximations to the Transport Equation | p. 377 |
Exponential Attenuation | p. 378 |
Diffusion Approximation | p. 380 |
Multigroup Approximation | p. 384 |
Method of Moments | p. 386 |
Discrete-Ordinates Method | p. 392 |
Integral Transport Method | p. 398 |
Direct Integration of the Scattering Source Term | p. 400 |
Implementation | p. 402 |
Monte Carlo Methods for Radiation Transport Calculations | p. 408 |
Random and Pseudorandom Numbers | p. 409 |
Selection Techniques for Stochastic Variables | p. 411 |
Selection of Discrete Variables | p. 411 |
Cumulative Distribution Method for Continuous Variables | p. 412 |
Rejection Method | p. 413 |
Composition Method | p. 414 |
Composition-Rejection Method | p. 415 |
Simple Analog Monte Carlo Calculation | p. 415 |
Geometric Transformations | p. 415 |
Particle Tracking | p. 416 |
Scoring | p. 419 |
Variance Reduction and Nonanalog Methods | p. 420 |
Central-Limit Theorem | p. 421 |
Importance Sampling | p. 421 |
Truncation Methods | p. 423 |
Splitting and Russian Roulette | p. 424 |
Interaction Forcing | p. 424 |
Exponential Transformation | p. 424 |
Deterministic Scoring Methods | p. 425 |
Constants and Conversion Factors | p. 431 |
Mathematical Tidbits | p. 433 |
Elliptic Integrals | p. 433 |
Sievert or Secant Integral | p. 433 |
Exponential Integral Function | p. 435 |
Legendre Polynomials | p. 440 |
Chandrasekhar's H Function | p. 442 |
Dirac Delta Function | p. 443 |
Cross Sections and Related Data | p. 446 |
Photon and Neutron Response Functions | p. 468 |
Photon Buildup and Neutron Attenuation Factors | p. 478 |
Skyshine Response Functions | p. 498 |
Fission-Product Source Parameters | p. 506 |
Photons Emitted by Selected Radionuclides | p. 514 |
Index | p. 523 |
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