Radiation Shielding

by Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E.

• ISBN13: 9780894484568
• ISBN10: 0894484567
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-03-01
• Publisher: Amer Nuclear Society

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xiii
Preface to the 2000 Printing	p. xvi
Introduction	p. 1
Historical Roots	p. 2
The Early Years	p. 2
The Origins of Modern Shielding Practice	p. 4
Modern Developments	p. 4
Regulatory Development	p. 6
Radiation Shielding Institutions	p. 7
Professional Societies and Journals	p. 8
Radiation Protection Institutions	p. 8
United Nations Organizations	p. 9
Governmental Organizations in the United States	p. 9
Important Sources of Shielding Information	p. 10
Final Remarks	p. 12
Characterization of Radiation Fields and Sources	p. 15
Directions and Solid Angles	p. 16
Fundamental Radiation Field Variables	p. 17
Fluence and Fluence Rate	p. 17
Net Flow and Net Flow Rate	p. 18
Other Definitions	p. 19
Directional Properties of the Radiation Field	p. 19
Properties of the Fluence	p. 19
Transformation of Variables	p. 20
Angular Properties of the Flow and Flow Rate	p. 21
Representations of Angular Dependence	p. 22
General Specification of Radiation Sources	p. 23
Distributed and Discrete Variables	p. 25
Interaction of Radiation with Matter	p. 28
Interaction Coefficient	p. 28
Microscopic Cross Section	p. 30
Conservation Laws for Scattering Reactions	p. 31
Conservation of Momentum	p. 31
Conservation of Energy	p. 32
Application of the Conservation Laws	p. 33
Scattering of Photons by Free Electrons	p. 33
Scattering of Neutrons by Atomic Nuclei	p. 34
Limiting Cases in Classical Mechanics of Elastic Scattering	p. 38
Elastic Scattering of Electrons and Heavy Charged Particles	p. 39
Cross Sections for Photon Interactions	p. 39
Thomson Cross Section for Incoherent Scattering	p. 40
Klein-Nishina Cross Section for Incoherent Scattering	p. 40
Incoherent Scattering Cross Sections for Bound Electrons	p. 41
Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering	p. 42
Photoelectric Effect	p. 44
Pair Production	p. 45
Photon Attenuation Coefficients	p. 45
Compton Absorption and Scattering Cross Sections	p. 46
Photoelectric Absorption Cross Section	p. 47
Absorption Cross Section for Pair Production	p. 48
Corrections for Radiative Energy Loss	p. 48
Neutron Interactions	p. 49
Classification of Types of Interactions	p. 50
Cross Sections for Neutron Scattering	p. 56
Average Energy Transfer in Neutron Scattering	p. 58
Radiative Capture of Neutrons	p. 60
Charged-Particle Interactions	p. 61
Collisional Energy Loss	p. 62
Electron Radiative Energy Loss	p. 67
Charged-Particle Range	p. 69
Residual-Range Concept	p. 72
Electron Radiation Yield	p. 72
Common Radiation Sources Encountered in Shield Design	p. 80
Neutron Sources	p. 80
Fission Neutrons	p. 80
Photoneutrons	p. 84
Neutrons from ([alpha], n) Reactions	p. 86
Activation Neutrons	p. 91
Fusion Neutrons	p. 92
Sources of Gamma Photons	p. 92
Radioactive Sources	p. 92
Prompt Fission Gamma Photons	p. 93
Gamma Photons from Fission Products	p. 94
Capture Gamma Photons	p. 101
Gamma Photons from Inelastic Neutron Scattering	p. 103
Activation Gamma Photons	p. 103
Annihilation Radiation	p. 104
Sources of X Rays	p. 105
Characteristic X Rays	p. 105
Bremsstrahlung	p. 108
X-Ray Machines	p. 111
Photon and Neutron Response Functions	p. 121
Dosimetric Quantities	p. 121
Energy Imparted, Specific Energy, and Lineal Energy	p. 123
Deterministic Quantities	p. 123
Absorbed Dose	p. 124
Kerma	p. 124
Exposure	p. 124
Linear Energy Transfer	p. 125
Dose Equivalent Quantities	p. 126
Quality Factor	p. 126
Concept of Radiation Response Function	p. 129
Local Response Functions for Point Targets	p. 130
Charged-Particle Equilibrium	p. 131
Local Response Functions for Neutrons	p. 134
Local Response Functions for Photons	p. 137
Photon Energy Deposition Coefficients	p. 137
Photon Kerma, Absorbed Dose, and Dose Equivalent	p. 139
Photon Exposure	p. 141
Selection of Proper Mass Energy Deposition Coefficients	p. 141
Response Functions for the Human as Target	p. 144
Characterization of Ambient Radiation	p. 144
Response Functions Based on Simple Geometric Phantoms	p. 145
Response Functions Based on Anthropomorphic Phantoms	p. 147
Comparison of Response Functions	p. 149
Basic Methods for Radiation Dose Calculations	p. 155
Uncollided Radiation	p. 156
Exponential Attenuations	p. 156
Mean-Free-Path Length	p. 157
Uncollided Dose from a Point Source	p. 157
Point Kernel for the Uncollided Dose	p. 160
Uncollided Doses from Distributed Sources	p. 161
Line Source	p. 161
Disk Source	p. 164
Rectangular Area Source	p. 167
Spherical Surface Source	p. 169
Frustrum of a Cone	p. 169
Infinite Slab Source	p. 170
Cylindrical Volume Source	p. 171
Point-Kernel Concept for Total Dose	p. 173
Dose in Terms of the Green's Function of Transport Theory	p. 173
Point Kernel for the Total Dose	p. 174
Isotropic Detector Without Spatial Dependence	p. 175
Infinite Homogeneous Medium	p. 175
Examples of Point Kernels	p. 176
Generalized Method for an Infinite Homogeneous Medium	p. 177
Volumetric Sources	p. 178
Absorbed Fraction and Reduction Factor	p. 180
Advantages of the Generalized Approach	p. 181
Limiting Source or Target Volumes	p. 182
Reciprocity Theorem	p. 182
Extension to Nonuniform and Surface Sources	p. 183
Infinite Cylindrical Sources	p. 184
Calculation of Geometric Factors	p. 185
Analytical Calculation of Geometry Factors	p. 185
Examples of Geometry Factors and Point-Pair Distributions	p. 185
Uncollided Dose Examples Using Geometry Factors	p. 188
Monte Carlo Evaluation of Geometry Factors and Point-Pair Distance Distributions	p. 189
Multiregion Geometries	p. 191
Basic Geometry Factors for One-Dimensional Problems	p. 192
Examples of Multiple Regions	p. 193
Effect of Density Variations	p. 195
Theorems for Density Variations	p. 196
Point Kernels in Media with Density Variations	p. 198
Modified Point-Pair Distance Distributions	p. 199
Modified Geometry Factors	p. 199
Example of a Modified Point-Pair Distance Distribution	p. 200
Example Problem Using Modified Geometry Factors	p. 200
Geometric Transformations	p. 203
Circular Area (Disk)-to-Point Source Transformation	p. 203
Volume-to-Surface Source Transformation	p. 204
Special Techniques for Photons	p. 214
Photon Buildup-Factor Concept	p. 215
Isotropic, Monoenergetic Sources in Infinite Media	p. 215
Comparison of Buildup Factors for Point and Plane Sources	p. 218
Empirical Approximations for Point-Source Buildup Factors	p. 220
Point-Kernel Applications of Buildup Factors	p. 223
Buildup Factors for Heterogeneous Media	p. 225
Boundary Effects in Finite Media	p. 225
Treatment of Stratified Media	p. 227
Broad-Beam Attenuation of Photons	p. 229
Attenuation Factors for Monoenergetic Photon Beams	p. 229
Attenuation of Oblique Beams of Monoenergetic Photons	p. 231
Attenuation Factors for X-Ray Beams	p. 231
The Half-Value Thickness	p. 234
Photon Albedo Concept	p. 235
Differential Number Albedo	p. 236
Integrals of Albedo Functions	p. 237
Application of the Albedo Method	p. 237
Single-Scatter Albedo	p. 239
Approximation for the Single-Scatter Dose Albedo	p. 240
Chilton-Huddleston Formula	p. 240
Photon Albedo Data	p. 241
Photon Streaming Through Ducts	p. 242
Characterization of Incident Radiation	p. 244
Line-of-Sight Component for Straight Ducts	p. 245
Wall-Penetration Component for Straight Ducts	p. 248
Single-Scatter Wall-Reflection Component	p. 248
Transmission of Gamma Rays Through Two-Legged Rectangular Ducts	p. 250
Shield Heterogeneities	p. 252
Limiting Case for Small Discontinuities	p. 253
Small Randomly Distributed Discontinuities	p. 253
Large Well-Defined Heterogeneities	p. 255
Gamma-Ray Skyshine	p. 256
Open Silo Example	p. 257
Shielded Skyshine Sources	p. 259
Special Techniques for Neutrons	p. 269
Differences Between Neutron and Photon Calculations	p. 271
Buildup Factors	p. 271
Neutron Dose Units	p. 272
Fission Neutron Attenuation by Hydrogen	p. 273
Removal Cross Sections	p. 279
Extensions of the Removal-Cross-Section Model	p. 282
Fast-Neutron Attenuation Without Hydrogen	p. 288
Calculation of the Intermediate and Thermal Fluences	p. 291
Diffusion Theory for Thermal Neutron Calculations	p. 291
Fermi Age Treatment for Thermal and Intermediate-Energy Neutrons	p. 293
Removal-Diffusion Techniques	p. 295
Capture-Gamma-Photon Attenuation	p. 300
Response from Uncollided Photons	p. 303
Response from Scattered Photons	p. 304
Neutron Shielding with Concrete	p. 304
Concrete Slab Shields	p. 307
Neutron Albedo	p. 312
Fast Neutron Albedo	p. 312
Intermediate-Energy Neutron Albedo	p. 315
Thermal Neutron Albedo	p. 317
Emission of Secondary Photons During Neutron Reflection	p. 317
Duct Streaming for Neutrons	p. 318
Straight Ducts	p. 318
Ducts with Bends	p. 320
Empirical and Experimental Results	p. 322
Neutron Skyshine	p. 322
Special Techniques for Charged Particles	p. 333
Introduction	p. 333
Alpha and Beta Decay	p. 333
Alpha Decay	p. 333
Beta Decay	p. 334
Spatial Distribution of the Absorbed Dose	p. 336
Point and Plane Kernels Defined	p. 336
Electron and Beta-Particle Dose Distributions	p. 338
Applications of the Point-Kernel	p. 342
Line Source of Electrons	p. 342
Plane Isotropic Source of Electrons	p. 344
Volume Source of Electrons	p. 347
Energy Spectrum of the Fluence	p. 348
CSDA Approximation	p. 349
Fluence Energy Spectra for Electron Sources	p. 349
Deterministic Transport Theory	p. 355
Transport Equation	p. 355
Explicit Form for the Three Basic Geometries	p. 359
Integral Form of the Transport Equation	p. 361
Transport Equation for Photons	p. 365
Transport Equation for Neutrons	p. 368
Implications of the Transport Equation	p. 371
Existence and Uniqueness	p. 371
Spatially Uniform Flux Density	p. 371
Plane-Density Variations	p. 372
Scaling of Radiation Fields	p. 374
Volume-to-Surface Source Transformation	p. 375
Approximations to the Transport Equation	p. 377
Exponential Attenuation	p. 378
Diffusion Approximation	p. 380
Multigroup Approximation	p. 384
Method of Moments	p. 386
Discrete-Ordinates Method	p. 392
Integral Transport Method	p. 398
Direct Integration of the Scattering Source Term	p. 400
Implementation	p. 402
Monte Carlo Methods for Radiation Transport Calculations	p. 408
Random and Pseudorandom Numbers	p. 409
Selection Techniques for Stochastic Variables	p. 411
Selection of Discrete Variables	p. 411
Cumulative Distribution Method for Continuous Variables	p. 412
Rejection Method	p. 413
Composition Method	p. 414
Composition-Rejection Method	p. 415
Simple Analog Monte Carlo Calculation	p. 415
Geometric Transformations	p. 415
Particle Tracking	p. 416
Scoring	p. 419
Variance Reduction and Nonanalog Methods	p. 420
Central-Limit Theorem	p. 421
Importance Sampling	p. 421
Truncation Methods	p. 423
Splitting and Russian Roulette	p. 424
Interaction Forcing	p. 424
Exponential Transformation	p. 424
Deterministic Scoring Methods	p. 425
Constants and Conversion Factors	p. 431
Mathematical Tidbits	p. 433
Elliptic Integrals	p. 433
Sievert or Secant Integral	p. 433
Exponential Integral Function	p. 435
Legendre Polynomials	p. 440
Chandrasekhar's H Function	p. 442
Dirac Delta Function	p. 443
Cross Sections and Related Data	p. 446
Photon and Neutron Response Functions	p. 468
Photon Buildup and Neutron Attenuation Factors	p. 478
Skyshine Response Functions	p. 498
Fission-Product Source Parameters	p. 506
Photons Emitted by Selected Radionuclides	p. 514
Index	p. 523
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