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Contents
Preface
iii
1 Overview of Reading and Reading Problems 1
Introduction 2
Reading Problems: A National Dilemma 3
National Reading Levels 4
Reading Needs in Today’s World 5
Need for Early Identification and Instruction 5
Where Do Children with Reading Problems Receive Help? 7
Different Models of Reading Assessment and Instruction 7
Response-to-Intervention 7
The Components Model of Reading 10
Differentiated Instruction 11
How Does a Student Construct Meaning in Reading? 13
Contribution of the Reader 14
Contribution of the Written Material 16
Contribution of the Reading Situation 16
Key Elements of Teaching Reading 17
Early Literacy 17
Word Recognition 17
Reading Fluency 17
Reading Comprehension 17
Reading Vocabulary 18
Reading-Writing Connection 19
Enjoyment and Appreciation 19
The Website for This Book 19
Summary 19
References 20
2 Factors Associated with Reading Disability 22
Introduction 23
Neurological and Cognitive Factors 23
iii
iv
CONTENTS
Environmental Factors 25
The Home Environment 25
The School Environment 26
The Social Environment 27
Cultural Environment 28
Assessing Environmental Factors 29
Emotional Factors 29
Emotional Problems 31
Assessing Emotional and Behavioral Factors 31
Intelligence and Intellectual Factors 31
Definitions of Intelligence 31
Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence 33
Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading
Disability 33
Concerns about Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading
Disability 34
Language Factors 36
Oral and Written Language 36
Receptive and Expressive Language 37
Systems of Oral Language 37
Speech Problems and Language Disorders 38
English Language Learners 40
Assessing Language Development 40
Physical Factors 40
Hearing Impairment 40
Visual Impairment 41
Gender Differences 43
Other Physical Problems 43
Summary 44
References 45
3 Obtaining Background Information 49
Introduction 50
Information about the Environment 50
Home Environment 51
School Environment 53
Social and Cultural Environments 57
Contents
v
Information about the Individual 58
Emotional Information 58
Information about Potential (Intelligence) 60
Physical Information 60
Information about Language Development 62
Methods of Collecting Information 63
Interview and Questionnaire 64
Informal Talks 65
School Records and Materials 66
Observation during Reading Lessons 66
Summary 67
References 67
4 Assessing Reading: Formal Measures 70
Introduction 71
Using Both Formal and Informal Assessment 71
Norm-Referenced Tests 72
Criterion-Referenced Tests 73
Bias in Testing 73
Ethical Considerations 73
Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests 74
Standardization, Validity, and Reliability 75
Tests of General Reading Assessment 76
Group Survey Tests 77
Individual Survey Tests 79
Normed Oral Reading Tests 82
Diagnostic Reading Tests 83
Diagnostic Reading Batteries 83
Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas 86
Measuring Intelligence 87
Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment 88
Intelligence Tests that Should Be Administered by Psychologists 89
Intelligence Tests that Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading
Specialists 92
Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores 94
Summary 95
References 95
vi
CONTENTS
5
Using an Informal Reading Inventory for
Assessment 100
Introduction 101
General Diagnostic Questions: An Overview 101
Does the Student Have a Reading Problem and How Severe Is It? 101
What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? 102
Overview of Informal Assessment Measures 104
Informal Reading Inventory 104
Obtaining Answers to General Diagnostic Questions 105
Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory 106
Interpreting the Score of the IRI 118
Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs 125
Combining IRI Assessment with Think-Alouds 128
Summary 131
References 132
6
Providing Instructional Support for Struggling
Readers 134
Introduction 135
Effective Instruction for Struggling Readers 135
Early Intervention Programs 136
Reading Recovery 136
Early Steps 137
Reading Rescue 137
Howard Street Tutoring Model 138
Book Buddies 138
The Boulder Project 138
Early Intervention in Reading 139
First-Grade Group Intervention 139
Reading Club 139
The Anna Plan 140
Literacy Booster Groups 140
Cross-Age Tutoring 140
Interventions for Older Students 141
Third-Grade Intervention 141
The Memphis Comprehension Framework 141
Contents vii
Project Success 142
Sixth-Grade Reading Class 142
Intervention Within the Classroom 142
Cross-Age Tutoring 143
Literacy Tutoring for Adolescents 143
Readers’ Workshop 144
Total School or Classroom Interventions 144
Success for All 144
Four-Blocks Literacy Model 145
Fluency-Oriented Reading Program 146
Guidelines for Teaching Students Struggling with Literacy 146
Emphasize Reading 146
Teach Students the Strategies that Good Readers Use 150
Make Assessment an Ongoing Component of Instruction 152
Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework 154
Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively 155
Provide Time for Word Study and Fluency Development 155
Include Writing as Part of the Lesson Structure 156
Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible 156
Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction 157
Application of Common Intervention Elements to Program Design 158
Summary 159
References 160
7 Early Literacy 166
Introduction 167
Early Literacy Concepts 167
Oral Language Development 168
Listening Comprehension 169
Print Knowledge 170
Environmental Print 171
Alphabet Knowledge 172
Phonemic Awareness 173
Short-Term Phonological Memory 174
Rapid Naming 176
Visual Memory 176
Visual Perceptual Skills 177
Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts 177
Oral Language Development 178
Print Knowledge 181
Alphabet Knowledge and Phonemic Awareness 183
viii
CONTENTS
Beginning Reading Vocabulary 186
Summary 186
References 187
8 Improving Word Recognition Accuracy 190
Introduction 191
Stages of Word Recognition Development 191
Strategies for Identifying Words 192
Assessing Phonics Strategies 193
Miscue Analysis 193
Tests of Phonics Patterns 193
Teaching Phonics Strategies 195
Letter-Sound Relationships 195
Organizing Phonics Instruction 196
Decoding Through Analogy 198
Combining Phonics and Meaning 200
Making Students Aware of Their Strategies 201
Dealing with Exceptions 201
Ideas for Practicing Phonics 202
Teaching Multisyllable Words 203
Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies 206
Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies 207
Assessing Context Strategies 208
Miscue Analysis 209
Comparison of Words Recognized in Lists and Passages 209
Teaching Context Strategies 209
Encouraging Students to Monitor for Meaning 210
Using Cloze 210
Summary 211
References 211
Contents
ix
9 Improving Reading Fluency 214
Introduction 215
Role of Fluency in the Reading Process 215
Assessing Word Recognition Fluency 216
Listening to Students Read Orally 216
Determining Reading Rate 217
Timed Administration of Word Lists 218
Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context 219
Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text 219
Using Patterned Books 221
Assisted Oral Reading 223
Repeated Readings 225
Performance Reading 227
The Language Experience Approach 228
Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective 229
Fluency Development Lesson 231
Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation 231
Choosing Words for Instructional Focus 232
Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words 232
Strategies for Focusing on Words 233
Mastering Function Words 236
Dealing with Reversals 237
The Curious George Strategy 237
Summary 239
References 240
10
Improving Vocabulary Development and Listening
Comprehension 243
Introduction 244
Importance of Language to Reading 244
Causes of Problems with Language 244
Language Disability and Delay 244
Lack of Reading 245
Lack of a Rich Language Environment 245
x
CONTENTS
Assessing Language Abilities 245
Informal Measures 245
Formal Measures 248
Conditions that Foster Language Learning 248
Exposure to Rich Language 249
Active Participation 250
Planning for Vocabulary and Language Learning 250
Making Connections 250
Strategies for Fostering Language: Listening Comprehension 252
Reading Books to Students 252
Paired Story Reading 253
Direct Listening-Thinking Activity 253
Sentence Stretchers 254
Encouraging Verbal Expression 254
Strategies for Fostering Language: Meaning Vocabulary 256
Introducing Words Before Reading 257
Practicing and Reinforcing Meaning Vocabulary 259
Fostering Vocabulary Learning through Rich Literate Experiences 260
Using Strategies to Figure Out Unknown Words 263
Using Poetry to Develop Language 269
Summary 271
References 271
11 Improving Comprehension of Narrative Text 274
Introduction 275
Effective Reading Comprehension 275
The Purpose of Reading Is Comprehension 275
Comprehension Is an Active and Accurate Process 275
Comprehension Uses Background Knowledge 276
Comprehension Requires Higher-Level Thinking 277
Comprehending Narrative Materials 277
Narratives Inspire Imaginative Personal Responses 277
Narratives Have Story Organization 278
Assessing Abilities with Narrative Text 279
Measuring General Comprehension Ability 279
Judging the Comprehension of Specific Materials 280
A Strategic Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension 282
Contents
xi
Strategies for Improving Comprehension before Reading 283
Building Background Knowledge 283
Making Predictions about Text 284
Reading a Story to Students 286
Strategies for Improving Comprehension during Reading 287
The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 287
Monitoring Responses to Reading 291
Making Mental Images 291
Constructing Content-Free Questions 293
Using Discussion Cards 294
Strategies for Improving Comprehension after Reading 296
Comprehension Strategies that Develop an Understanding of Story
Structure 296
Comprehension Strategies that Nurture Personal Response 299
Connecting the Literacy Experience 301
Conceptually Connected Instruction Using Themes 301
Studying Different Genres 303
Summary 303
References 305
12 Improving Comprehension of Informational Text 308
Introduction 309
Nature of Informational Text 309
Types of Informational Text 309
Difficulties Presented by Informational Text 310
Importance of Informational Text 311
Assessing Abilities with Informational Text 311
Focusing the Informal Reading Inventory on Informational Text 311
Assessing the Use of Background Knowledge 312
Assessing Comprehension Monitoring 312
Assessing Ability to Transform Text for Studying 313
Strategies for Helping Students Read Informational Text 313
Strategies for Combining Prior Knowledge with Informational Text 314
Strategies for Monitoring the Comprehension of Informational Text 319
Content-Free Questions 320
Question Answer Relationships 328
Strategies for Transforming Informational Text 329
xii
CONTENTS
Summary 332
References 335
13
Reading and Writing 337
Introduction 338
Importance of Teaching Writing 338
Assessing Writing 339
Writing Instruction 340
Writing Process 340
Supporting Students’ Writing 343
Personal Communication 345
Written Conversations 345
Personal Journals 347
Strategies for Integrating Reading and Writing 347
Writing and Reading Narrative Text 348
Writing and Reading Informational Text 352
Writing with Poetry 354
Developing the Ability to Spell 356
Spelling Development 358
Spelling Assessment 359
Spelling Instruction 361
Handwriting 362
Summary 363
References 364
14
Literacy Instruction for Diverse Populations: Multicultural
Diversity, English Language Learners, Parents and Families,
Adolescents, and Adults with Reading Problems 367
Introduction 368
Literacy in a Multicultural Society 368
Diverse Cultural Views about Reading 368
Teaching Children from Diverse Cultures 369
Contents xiii
English Language Learners 372
Who Are ELLs? 372
Methods for Teaching ELLs 373
Teaching Reading to ELLs 373
Strategies for Teaching Reading to ELL Students 374
The Important Role of Parents and Family in Fostering
Literacy 376
Parent Workshops 376
Adolescents with Reading Problems 377
Characteristics of Adolescents with Reading Problems 378
Special Considerations at the Secondary Level 378
Components of Effective Secondary Programs 379
Adults with Reading Problems 379
Postsecondary and College Programs 379
Needs of Adults with Reading Problems 380
Instructional Programs for Adults 380
Summary 381
References 382
15 Literacy Instruction for Students with Special Needs 384
Introduction 385
Students with Disabilities 385
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 385
The Individualized Education Program 387
Transition Services 388
Procedural Safeguards 388
Learning Disabilities 388
Characteristics of Learning Disabilities 388
Educational Settings for Students with Learning Disabilities 389
Eligibility of Learning Disabilities for Special Education 390
Dyslexia 390
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 391
Characteristics of ADHD 391
Educational Settings for Students with ADHD 392
Medication for Students with ADHD 392
Students Who Are at Risk for School Failure 392
Providing Reading Instruction for Students with Special
Needs 393
Adapting Standard Reading Methods for Students with Severe Reading
Disabilities 393
xiv
CONTENTS
Differentiated Instruction 396
Differences in Cognitive Processing 396
Multisensory Methods for Teaching Reading 397
Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program 399
Direct Instruction Reading Program 400
Fast ForWord 400
Summary 401
References 401
16 Collaborative Assessment and Instruction 404
Introduction 405
Changing Roles of Reading Specialists 405
Title I Programs 405
No Child Left Behind Act 407
Narrowing the Achievement Gap 407
Role of the Reading Specialist in Assessment 408
Evaluation of Student Performance 408
Individual Diagnostic Procedures 408
Role of the Reading Specialist in Instruction 410
Working with Classroom Teachers 411
Working with Other Professionals 411
Reading Specialists as Literacy Leaders 411
Providing Support for Teachers 412
Providing Support for Paraprofessionals 413
Serving as Liaison between Teachers and Administrators 413
Serving on Student Services Teams 415
Serving on the Instructional Intervention Team 417
Working with Parents 419
Literacy Advocates in the Community 421
Summary 423
References 423
Test Index 425
Name Index 000
Subject Index 000
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