Reemergence of Established Pathogens in the 21st Century

by Fong, I. W.; Drlica, Karl

• ISBN13: 9780306475009
• ISBN10: 0306475006
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-08-01
• Publisher: Springer Nature

Summary

This volume, compiled by two of the leading experts in the field, provides the specialist and trainee in microbiology, infectious disease, infection control, and epidemiology with a concise, timely and authoritative review of some of the most problematic infections of the new century. This volume will foster a better understanding of the issues and new ideas for preventing and controlling infectious disease.

Table of Contents

Section I The Changing Spectrum of Bacterial Infections
Chapter 1 Severe Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections
Anna Norrby-Teglund, Allison McGeer, Malak Kotb, and Donald E. Low
1. Introduction	3	(1)
2. Microbiology	4	(1)
3. Pathogensis	4	(5)
4. Clinical Entities and Epidemiology	9	(5)
4.1. STSS	9	(1)
4.2. Necrotizing Fascitis	10	(2)
4.3. Soft-Tissue Infections	12	(2)
5. Treatment Modalities	14	(5)
5.1. Antimicrobials	14	(1)
5.2. Novel Therapeutic Strategies	15	(4)
6. Prevention	19	(2)
7. Future Directions	21	(1)
References	22	(13)
Chapter 2 Bartonella Infections Resugence in New Century
Gilbert Greub and Didier Raoult
1. Introduction	35	(1)
2. Microbiology	35	(11)
2.1. Description of the Genus	35	(1)
2.2. Phylogeny	36	(2)
2.3. Diagnostic Methods	38	(1)
2.3.1. Histology	41	(1)
2.3.2. Culture	41	(1)
2.3.3. Molecular Tools	45	(1)
2.3.4. Serology	46	(1)
3. Bartonella-Related Infections in Humans	46	(12)
3.1. Trench Fever	46	(1)
3.1.1. Historical Background	46	(1)
3.1.2. Epidemiology	47	(1)
3.1.3. Clinical Presentation	48	(1)
3.1.4. Management	48	(1)
3.2. Carrion's Disease	48	(1)
3.2.1. Historical Background	48	(1)
3.2.2. Epidemiology	49	(1)
3.2.3. Clinical Presentation	49	(1)
3.2.4. Management	50	(1)
3.3. Bacillary Angiomatosis	50	(1)
3.3.1. Historical Background	50	(1)
3.3.2. Epidemiology	51	(1)
3.3.3. Clinical Presentation	51	(1)
3.3.4. Management	52	(1)
3.4. Bacillary Peliosis	52	(1)
3.4.1. Historical Background	52	(1)
3.4.2. Epidemiology	52	(1)
3.4.3. Clinical Presentation	53	(1)
3.5. Cat-Scratch Disease	53	(1)
3.5.1. Historical Background	53	(1)
3.5.2. Epidemiology	53	(1)
3.5.3. Clinical Presentation	54	(1)
3.5.4. Management	55	(1)
3.6. Chronic Bacteremia	55	(1)
3.6.1. Historical Background	55	(1)
3.6.2. Epidemiology	55	(1)
3.6.3. Clinical Presentation	56	(1)
3.6.4. Management	56	(1)
3.7. Endocarditis	56	(1)
3.7.1. Historical Background	56	(1)
3.7.2. Epidemiology	57	(1)
3.7.3. Clinical Presentation	57	(1)
3.7.4. Management	57	(1)
4. Pathogenesis and Natural History of Bartonella Infections in Mammals	58	(1)
5. Future Directions	59	(1)
References	59	(12)
Section II Resistant Bacteria and Resurgence
Chapter 3 Antibiotic-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: Implications for Management in the 21st Century
Cynthia G. Whitney and Nina E. Glass
1. Introduction	71	(1)
2. Microbiology and Definitions of Resistance	72	(3)
2.1. Defining Resistance	73	(1)
2.2. Susceptibility Testing Methods	73	(2)
3. Mechanisms of Resistance	75	(2)
4. Epidemiology and Distribution of Resistant Strains	77	(5)
4.1. Geographic Variation in the Prevalence of Resistant Strains	78	(3)
4.2. Resistant Pneumococcal Clones	81	(1)
5. Clinical Relevance of Resistance	82	(2)
6. Diagnosis and Treatment in the Era of Resistance	84	(2)
7. Preventing Resistant Pneumococcal Infections	86	(13)
7.1. Reducing Inappropriate Antibiotic Use	86	(1)
7.2. Pneumococcal Vaccines	86	(2)
8. The Future of Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae	88	(1)
References	89	(10)
Chapter 4 MRSA in the 21st Century: Emerging Challenges
Ignatius W. Fong and Maria Kolia
1. Introduction	99	(1)
2. Microbiology and Mechanism of Resistance	100	(11)
2.1. Genome	100	(2)
2.2. Other Staphylococcal Components and Products	102	(1)
2.3. Mechanism of Resistance to Methicillin	102	(2)
2.4. Culture and Sensitivity Testing	104	(2)
2.5. Typing	106	(1)
2.6. Antibiotics against MRSA: Mechanisms of Action and Mechanisms of Resistance	107	(1)
2.6.1. Macrolide-Lincosamide-Streptogramin (MLS) Group	107	(1)
2.6.2. Chloramphenicol	108	(1)
2.6.3. Aminoglycosides (Gentamicin, Netilmicin, Amikacin, etc.)	109	(1)
2.6.4. Tetracyclines	109	(1)
2.6.5. Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX)	109	(1)
2.6.6. Rifampin	109	(1)
2.6.7. Fluoroquinolones (Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Norfloxacin, etc.)	109	(1)
2.6.8. Fusidic Acid	110	(1)
2.6.9. Mupirocin	110	(1)
2.6.10. Glycopeptides (Vancomycin, Teicoplanin)	110	(1)
2.6.11. Oxazolidinones (Linezolid)	110	(1)
3. Epidemiology	111	(5)
3.1. Tools of Epidemiology	111	(1)
3.2. MRSA in the Hospital	112	(3)
3.3. MRSA in the Community	115	(1)
4. Clinical Entities	116	(6)
4.1. Colonization	116	(1)
4.1.1. Colonization and Transmission	116	(1)
4.1.2. Colonization and Infection	118	(1)
4.2. Invasive Disease	118	(1)
4.2.1. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections	118	(1)
4.2.2. Bone and Joint Infections	119	(1)
4.2.3. Lung Infections	119	(1)
4.2.4. Bloodstream Infections	120	(1)
4.2.5. Toxin-Induced Syndromes (Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome, Toxic Shock Syndrome, and Enteritis)	121	(1)
4.3. Are MRSA More Virulent?	121	(1)
5. Prevention and Treatment of MRSA Infections	122	(13)
5.1. Prevention	122	(1)
5.1.1. The Benefits of Preventing MRSA Spread	122	(1)
5.1.2. Control Measures	122	(1)
5.1.3. MRSA Containment in Special Settings	129	(1)
5.2. Treatment	130	(1)
5.2.1. Vancomycin	130	(1)
5.2.2. Teicoplanin	131	(1)
5.2.3. Linezolid	132	(1)
5.2.4. Quinupristin-Dalfopristin	133	(1)
5.2.5. Other Non-3-Lactam Antimicrobials	134	(1)
6. Vancomycin Intermediate-Resistance S. aureus	135	(1)
7. Vancomycin Resistant S. aureus	136	(1)
8. Future Directions	137	(1)
References	138	(17)
Chapter 5 Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci
Esteban C. Nannini and Barbara E. Murray
1. Introduction	155	(2)
2. Mechanisms of Resistance to Vancomycin	157	(7)
2.1. VanA	158	(2)
2.2. VanB	160	(1)
2.3. VanC	161	(1)
2.4. VanD	161	(1)
2.5. VanE	162	(1)
2.6. VanF	162	(1)
2.7. VanG	163	(1)
2.8. Vancomycin-Dependent Enterococci	163	(1)
2.9. Origin of Vancomycin Resistance Genes	163	(1)
3. Epidemiology	164	(16)
3.1. The Scenario in Europe	165	(1)
3.2. The Scenario in United States	166	(1)
3.3. Risk Factors	167	(4)
3.4. Mortality Associated with VRE	171	(2)
3.5. VRE and Clostridium difficile	173	(1)
3.6. Transmission	174	(2)
3.7. The Role of Long-Term Care Facilities (LTCFs)	176	(1)
3.8. Prevention and Control Measures	176	(1)
3.8.1. Appropriate Use of Vancomycin and Other Antibiotics	177	(1)
3.8.2. Implementation of Infection Control Measures	178	(2)
3.9. Treatment of VRE-Colonized Patients	180	(1)
4. Treatment of VRE Infections	180	(8)
4.1. General Considerations	180	(1)
4.1.1. Enterococcal Species	181	(1)
4.1.2. Type of Glycopeptide Resistance	181	(1)
4.1.3. Necessity of Bactericidal Therapy	181	(1)
4.2. Therapeutic Options	182	(1)
4.2.1. Lower UTIs	182	(1)
4.2.2. Diverse Agents and Combinations in Vitro and in Animal Models	183	(1)
4.2.3. Approved Agents for VRE Infections	183	(1)
4.2.4. Other Options and Anecdotal Reports	186	(1)
4.3. Agents in Development	186	(2)
5. Conclusion	188	(1)
References	188	(17)
Chapter 6 Multi-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae in Hospital Practice
Maria I. Morosini, Rafael Cantón, and José L. Martínez
1. Introduction	205	(1)
2. Molecular Basis of Antibiotic Resistance in Enterobacteriaceae	206	(9)
2.1. Horizontal Gene Transfer	206	(2)
2.2. Mechanisms of Resistance	208	(1)
2.2.1. Quinolone Resistance	208	(1)
2.2.2. Extended Spectrum B-Lactamases (ESBLs)	209	(5)
2.3. Multidrug Efflux Pumps	214	(1)
3. Epidemiology and Extension of the Problem	215	(6)
3.1. Extended-Spectrum B-Lactamase Producing Isolates	216	(1)
3.1.1. AmpC Hyperproducing Enterobacter	217	(1)
3.1.2. Carbapenem Resistance	218	(1)
3.2. Quinolone Resistance and Multi-Resistance in Enterobacteriaceae	218	(3)
4. Intensive Care Units as the Epicenter of the Problem	221	(1)
5. Future Directions	222	(9)
5.1. Prevention	222	(1)
5.2. Management	223	(1)
5.2.1. Antibiotic Policies	224	(7)
6. New Agents on the Horizon	231	(1)
References	232	(13)
Chapter 7 Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis
Philip Spradling and Renee Ridzon
1. Overview	245	(3)
1.1. History	245	(1)
1.2. Definition	246	(1)
1.3. Public Health Importance	247	(1)
2. Epidemiology	248	(8)
2.1. Domestic	248	(2)
2.2. International	250	(6)
3. Production and Perpetuation of MDRTB	256	(5)
3.1. Mechanisms of Resistance	256	(1)
3.2. Clinical Errors	256	(1)
3.3. Host Factors	257	(1)
3.4. Transmission and Outbreaks	258	(1)
3.5. Programmatic and Institutional Factors	259	(2)
3.6. Substandard Antituberculosis Drugs	261	(1)
4. Diagnosis	261	(3)
4.1. Risk Factors for MDRTB	261	(1)
4.2. Drug Susceptibility Tests	262	(1)
4.3. New Methodologies for Rapid Detection of Drug Resistance	263	(1)
5. Treatment	264	(8)
5.1. General Principles	264	(1)
5.2. Second-Line Antituberculosis Drugs, Toxicity, and Cross-Resistance	265	(5)
5.3. Surgical Intervention	270	(1)
5.4. Novel Therapies	271	(1)
5.5. Treatment Outcomes	272	(1)
6. HIV Infection and MDRTB	272	(5)
6.1. Impact of HIV on the Epidemiology of MDRTB	272	(3)
6.2. Impact on Diagnosis and Treatment	275	(2)
6.3. Impact on Treatment Outcomes	277	(1)
7. Prevention	277	(4)
7.1. Provider-Based	277	(1)
7.2. Institutional and Program-Based	278	(1)
7.3. Treatment of Persons Exposed to MDRTB	279	(1)
7.4. BCG and Vaccines	280	(1)
8. Summary	281	(1)
References	282	(13)
Chapter 8 Controlling Antibiotic Resistance: Strategies Based on the Mutant Selection Window
Karl Drlica and Xilin Zhao
1. Introduction	295	(1)
2. The Resistance Problem	296	(5)
3. Mutant Selection Window	301	(4)
4. Development of Resistance	305	(2)
5. Restricting Resistance: Monodrug Therapy	307	(4)
5.1. Drug Concentrations Above MPC	307	(1)
5.2. Dual Targetting and Closing the Mutant Selection Window	308	(1)
5.3. Numerical Considerations	309	(1)
5.4. Standard Pharmacodynamic Approach	310	(1)
6. Restricting Resistance: Combination Therapy	311	(3)
7. Importance of Lethal Action	314	(1)
8. Cross-Resistance	315	(2)
9. Surveillance of Resistance	317	(1)
10. Reversing Resistance and Antibiotic Cycling	318	(1)
11. Concluding Remarks	319	(2)
Acknowledgments	321	(1)
References	321	(14)
Section III Resistant Parasitic Infections
Chapter 9 Drug-Resistant Malaria
Mona R. Loutfy and Kevin C. Kain
1. Introduction	335	(1)
2. Drug-Resistant Falciparum Malaria	336	(9)
2.1 Epidemiology and Worldwide Distribution	336	(2)
2.2 Mechanisms of Action and Resistance	338	(1)
2.2.1. Chloroquine	338	(1)
2.2.2. Antifolates	340	(1)
2.2.3. Mefloquine	341	(1)
2.2.4. Atovaquone/proguanil	342	(1)
2.3 Management	343	(1)
2.3.1. Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine	343	(1)
2.3.2. Mefloquine	343	(1)
2.3.3. Halofantrine	343	(1)
2.3.4. Atovaquone plus Proguanil	344	(1)
2.3.5. Artemisinin Derivatives	344	(1)
3. Drug-Resistant Vivax Malaria	345	(2)
3.1. Epidemiology	345	(1)
3.2. Mechanism of Resistance	346	(1)
3.3. Management	346	(1)
4. Malaria Prevention	347	(3)
4.1. Malarial Control	347	(1)
4.2. Chemoprophylaxis	348	(1)
4.2.1. Areas with Chloroquine-Sensitive P. falciparum Malaria	349	(1)
4.2.2. Areas with Chloroquine-Resistant P. falciparum Malaria	349	(1)
5. Future Direction	350	(2)
5.1. New Agents	350	(1)
5.1.1. Lumefantrine plus Artemether	350	(1)
5.2.2. Tafenaquine	351	(1)
6. Conclusion	352	(1)
References	352	(9)
Index	361