Remote Sensing of the Environment An Earth Resource Perspective

by Jensen, John R.

• ISBN13: 9780131889507
• ISBN10: 0131889508
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-05-11
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

This popular book introduces the fundamentals of remote sensing from an earth resource (versus engineering) perspective. The author emphasizes the use of remote sensing data for useful spatial biophysical or socio-economic information that can be used to make decisions. Provides two new chapters on LIDAR Remote Sensing (Ch. 10) and In situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement (Ch. 15). Offers a thorough review of the nature of electromagnetic radiation, examining how the reflected or emitted energy in the visible, near-infrared, middle-infrared, thermal infrared, and microwave portions of the spectrum can be collected by a variety of sensor systems and analyzed. Employs a visually stimulating, clear format: a large (8.5" x 11") format with 48 pages in full color facilitates image interpretation; hundreds of specially designed illustrationscommunicate principles in an easily understood manner. A useful reference for agriculture, wetland, and/or forestry professionals, along with geographers, urban planners, and transportation engineers.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Acknowledgments	xvi
Remote Sensing of the Environment	1	(36)
In Situ Data Collection	1	(1)
Remote Sensing Data Collection	2	(6)
Maximal/Minimal Definitions	4	(3)
Remote Sensing Advantages and Limitations	7	(1)
The Remote Sensing Process	8	(20)
Statement of the Problem	8	(2)
Identification of In Situ and Remote Sensing Data Requirements	10	(2)
Remote Sensing Data Collection	12	(12)
Remote Sensing Data Analysis	24	(1)
Information Presentation	24	(4)
Earth Observation Economics	28	(3)
Earth Resource Analysis Perspective	31	(1)
Book Organization	32	(5)
Electromagnetic Radiation Principles	37	(24)
Conduction, Convection, Radiation	37	(1)
Electromagnetic Radiation Models	38	(9)
Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy	38	(5)
The Particle Model -- Radiation from Atomic Structures	43	(4)
Atmospheric Energy-Matter Interaction	47	(6)
Refraction	48	(1)
Scattering	48	(3)
Absorption	51	(1)
Reflectance	51	(2)
Terrain Energy-Matter Interactions	53	(4)
Hemispherical Reflectance, Absorptance, and Transmittance	54	(2)
Radiant Flux Density	56	(1)
Atmospheric Energy-Matter Interactions Again	57	(1)
Energy-Matter Interactions at the Sensor	57	(4)
Target and Path Radiance	57	(4)
History of Aerial Photography and Aerial Platforms	61	(30)
History of Photography	61	(5)
Light and Color	61	(1)
The Camera Obscura	62	(1)
Invention of Light-sensitive Emulsions and Methods of Permanently Fixing the Image	62	(4)
Photography from Aerial Platforms	66	(8)
Ornithopters	66	(1)
Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Balloons	66	(4)
Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Kites	70	(1)
Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Rockets	71	(1)
Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Pigeons, Gliders, and Aircraft	71	(3)
Photo-reconnaissance in W W I and W W II	74	(2)
Aerial Photography in World War I	74	(1)
Aerial Photography in World War II	75	(1)
Cold War Photo-Reconnaissance	76	(5)
Genetrix Reconnaissance Balloons	77	(1)
U-2 Aircraft Reconnaissance Program	77	(3)
The SR-71	80	(1)
Airborne Stealth Technology	80	(1)
Satellite Remote Sensing	81	(4)
Corona	81	(2)
Ongoing Satellite Sentinels	83	(2)
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles	85	(1)
Tactical and Endurance UAVs	85	(1)
UAV Payloads and Other Considerations	86	(1)
Commercial Remote Sensing Platforms	86	(5)
Aerial Photography -- Vantage Point, Cameras, Filters, and Film	91	(36)
Vertical and Oblique Vantage Points	91	(5)
Vertical Aerial Photography	91	(1)
Oblique Aerial Photography	92	(4)
Aerial Cameras	96	(8)
Aerial Camera Components Compared with the Eye	96	(1)
Types of Aerial Cameras	97	(7)
Aerial Photography Filtration	104	(5)
Types, Sizes, and Colors of Filters	107	(2)
Aerial Photography Films	109	(15)
General Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions	110	(1)
Black-and-White Photographic Emulsions	111	(11)
Color Photographic Emulsions	122	(2)
Planning Aerial Photography Missions	124	(3)
Time of Day---Sun Angle	124	(1)
Weather	125	(1)
Flightline Layout	125	(2)
Elements of Visual Image Interpretation	127	(22)
Introduction	127	(3)
The Aerial/Regional Perspective	128	(1)
Three-Dimensional Depth Perception	128	(1)
Obtaining Knowledge Beyond Our Human Visual Perception	129	(1)
Historical Image Record and Change Detection Documentation	130	(1)
Elements of Image Interpretation	130	(14)
Methods of Search	144	(5)
Using Collateral Information	144	(1)
Convergence of Evidence	145	(1)
The Multi-concept	145	(4)
Photogrammetry	149	(44)
Flightlines of Vertical Aerial Photography	150	(2)
Fiducia! Marks and Principal Points	152	(1)
Geometry of Vertical Aerial Photography	153	(2)
Scale and Height Measurement on Single Vertical Aerial Photographs	155	(7)
Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Level Terrain	155	(3)
Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Variable Terrain	158	(2)
Height Measurement from Single Aerial Photographs	160	(2)
Stereoscopic Measurement of Object Height or Terrain Elevation	162	(12)
Fundamentals of Human Stereoscopy	163	(1)
Stereoscopy Applied to Aerial Photography	164	(4)
Stereoscopic Aerial Photography -- How Does It Work?	168	(6)
Digital Elevation Models, Orthophotos, and Planimetric Features from Soft-copy Photogrammetry	174	(15)
Collection of Accurate Horizontal and Vertical Ground Control	175	(2)
Collection of Stereoscopic Aerial Photography or Other Remote Sensor Data	177	(1)
Image Digitization Technology	177	(1)
Soft-Copy Photogrammetry	177	(4)
Spot Elevations, Contours, and Digital Elevation Models	181	(2)
Creation of Digital Orthoimages	183	(5)
Extraction of Thematic Features of Interest	188	(1)
Area Measurement	189	(4)
Area Measurement of Well-known Geometric Shapes	190	(1)
Area Measurment of Irregularly Shaped Polygons	190	(3)
Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems	193	(56)
Digital Multispectral Data Collection	193	(4)
Digital Image Terminology	194	(1)
Remote Sensing Systems to be Examined	194	(3)
Multispectral Imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors	197	(25)
Earth Resource Technology Satellites and the Landsat Sensor Systems	197	(15)
NOAA Multispectral Scanner Sensors	212	(6)
ORBIMAGE and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Field of View Sensor (SeaWiFS)	218	(2)
Aircraft Multispectral Scanners	220	(2)
Multispectral Imaging Using Linear Arrays	222	(15)
SPOT Sensor Systems	223	(6)
Indian Remote Sensing Systems	229	(2)
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)	231	(1)
Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR)	232	(1)
Very-High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing Systems	233	(4)
Imaging Spectrometry Using Linear and Area Arrays	237	(7)
Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)	241	(1)
Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 1500	241	(1)
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS)	242	(2)
Digital Frame Cameras Based on Area Arrays	244	(5)
Small-format Digital Data Collection: Leica Geosystems Emerge Sensor	244	(1)
Large-format Digital Data Collection: Z/1 Digital Modular Camera	245	(1)
Large-format Digital Data Collection: Vexcel UltraCam based on Area Arrays	245	(4)
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing	249	(42)
History of Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing	250	(2)
Thermal Infrared Radiation Properties	252	(1)
Kinetic Heat, Temperature, Radiant Energy, and Radiant Flux	252	(1)
Methods of Transferring Heat	253	(1)
Thermal Infrared Atmospheric Windows	253	(1)
Thermal Radiation Laws	254	(6)
Stefan-Boltzmann Law	254	(1)
Wien's Displacement Law	255	(1)
Emissivity	255	(2)
Kirchoff's Radiation Law	257	(3)
Thermal Properties of Terrain	260	(1)
Thermal Infrared Data Collection	261	(13)
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Based on Multispectral Scanners	261	(10)
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Based on Area- and Linear-Arrays	271	(3)
Thermal Infrared Environmental Considerations	274	(2)
Diurnal Temperature Cycle of Typical Materials	274	(2)
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Examples	276	(15)
Water Pollution Monitoring: Thermal Effluent in the Savannah River	276	(6)
Water Pollution Monitoring: Leaking Septic Tanks	282	(1)
Thermal Infrared Residential Insulation Surveys	282	(3)
Thermal Infrared Commercial/Industrial Roof Moisture Surveys	285	(1)
Analysis of the Urban Heat Island Effect	286	(2)
Use of Thermal Infrared Imagery for Forestry Applications	288	(1)
Remote Sensing Plant Stress Degree Days	288	(3)
Active and Passive Microwave Remote Sensing	291	(44)
History of Active Microwave (RADAR) Remote Sensing	291	(3)
Active Microwave System Components	294	(19)
Sending and Receiving a Pulse of Microwave Energy--System Components	294	(5)
Slant-Range versus Ground-Range RADAR Image Geometry	299	(6)
Relief Displacement, Image Foreshortening, Layover, Shadows, and Speckle	305	(3)
Synthetic Aperture Rador Systems	308	(5)
RADAR Environmental Considerations	313	(10)
Surface Roughness Characteristics	313	(3)
Electrical Characteristics (Complex Dielectric Constant) and the Relationship with Moisture Content	316	(1)
Vegetation Response to Microwave Energy	317	(4)
Water Response to Microwave Energy	321	(1)
Urban Structure Response to Microwave Energy	322	(1)
SAR Remote Sensing from Space	323	(5)
Seasat	323	(1)
Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR A, SIR--B, SIR--C and Topography Mission	323	(1)
RADARSAT and RADARSAT-2	324	(2)
European Space Agency ERS-1 and ERS-2	326	(1)
European Space Agency Envisant ASAR	326	(2)
RADAR Interferometry	328	(2)
Interferometric Topographic Mapping	328	(1)
Interferometric Velocity Mapping	329	(1)
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing	330	(5)
Passive Microwave Radiometers	330	(5)
LIDAR Remote Sensing	335	(20)
LIDAR Principles	336	(13)
LIDAR Laser and Scanning System	336	(2)
LIDAR Laser Location	338	(1)
LIDAR Antenna Attitude (Orientation)	339	(1)
LIDAR Post-Processing of Multiple Returns	340	(1)
Extraction of First, Intermediate and or Last Return DSMs	340	(1)
Extraction of Bare-Earth Digital Terrain Models	341	(8)
Accuracy of LIDAR Measurements	349	(2)
NSSDA Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Assessment	349	(2)
Influence of Landcover, Slope, and Leaf-on/off Condition	351	(1)
LIDAR-derived Vegetation Information	351	(1)
LIDAR-derived Urban Information	352	(3)
Remote Sensing of Vegetation	355	(54)
Photosynthesis Fundamentals	355	(1)
Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation	356	(17)
Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance	356	(17)
Temporal Characteristics of Vegetation	373	(9)
Natural Phenological Cycles	375	(2)
Managed Phenological Cycles	377	(5)
Vegetation Indices	382	(11)
Landscape Ecology Metrics	393	(3)
Landscape Indicators and Patch Metrics	393	(3)
Biodiversity and GAP Analysis	396	(1)
Remote Sensing of Vegetation Change	397	(12)
Remote Sensing Inland Wetland Successional Changes	397	(3)
Remote Sensing South African Agriculture	400	(9)
Remote Sensing of Water	409	(34)
Remote Sensing Surface Water Biophysical Characteristics	410	(18)
Water Surface, Subsurface Volumetric, and Bottom Radiance	410	(1)
Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Wavelength	411	(4)
Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Organic/Inorganic Constituents	415	(8)
Water Penetration and Bathymetry	423	(3)
Water Surface Temperature	426	(2)
Precipitation	428	(3)
Visible--Infrared Techniques	429	(1)
Active and Passive Microwave Techniques	430	(1)
Aerosols and Clouds	431	(4)
Aerosols	431	(1)
Clouds	432	(3)
Water Vapor	435	(1)
Snow	435	(2)
Snow in the Visible Spectrum	436	(1)
Snow in the Middle-Infrared and Microwave Regions	436	(1)
Water Quality Modeling	437	(6)
An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS Water Quality Model	437	(6)
Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape	443	(64)
National Spatial Data Infrastructure	444	(1)
Urban Resolution Considerations	444	(6)
Urban/Suburban Temporal Resolution Considerations	444	(1)
Urban/Suburban Spectral Resolution Considerations	445	(4)
Urban/Suburban Spatial Resolution Considerations	449	(1)
Remote Sensing Land Use and Land Cover	450	(6)
Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification Schemes	451	(1)
Urban Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification (Levels I to IV)	452	(4)
Residential Land Use	456	(8)
Commercial and Services Land Use	464	(15)
Industrial Land Use	479	(10)
Transportation Infrastructure	489	(6)
Communications and Utilities	495	(1)
Urban Digital Elevation Model Creation	496	(2)
Meteorological Data	498	(1)
Urban Hydrology	498	(2)
Critical Environmental Area Assessment	500	(1)
Disaster Emergency Response	500	(7)
Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology	507	(62)
Soil Characteristics and Taxonomy	508	(2)
Soil Horizons	508	(1)
Soil Grain Size and Texture	509	(1)
Soil Taxonomy	510	(1)
Remote Sensing of Soil Properties	510	(8)
Soil Texture and Moisture Content	512	(3)
Soil Organic Matter and Biological Soil Crusts	515	(1)
Iron Oxide	515	(1)
Soil Salinity	515	(1)
Surface Roughness	516	(2)
Remote Sensing of Rocks and Minerals	518	(3)
Imaging Spectroscopy of Rocks and Minerals	518	(3)
Geology	521	(8)
Lithology	522	(1)
Structure	523	(2)
Drainage Morphometry and Pattern	525	(4)
Geomorphology	529	(40)
Igneous Landforms	530	(4)
Landforms Developed on Horizontal Strata	534	(3)
Landforms Developed on Folded Strata	537	(2)
Fault-Controlled Landforms	539	(1)
Fluvial Landforms	540	(9)
Karst Landforms	549	(1)
Shoreline Landforms	549	(7)
Glacial Landforms	556	(4)
Eolian Landforms	560	(9)
In Situ Reflectance Measurement	569	(10)
Spectral Reflectance of a Material	570	(1)
Reference Material	571	(1)
Illumination Considerations	571	(3)
In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using Solar Illumination	571	(2)
In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using Artificial Illumination	573	(1)
Soil Taxonomy	574	(1)
Characteristics of the Spectroradiometer Used to Obtain In Situ Reflectance	574	(5)
Spectral Region of Interest	574	(2)
Spectral Resolution	576	(1)
Spectral Sampling Interval	576	(1)
Spectrometer Design and Data Collection Speed	576	(1)
Viewing Geometry and Field of View	577	(1)
Candidate Spectroradiometers	578	(1)
Appendix---Sources of Remote Sensing Information	579	(4)
Index	583