Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems

by Masters, Gilbert M.

• ISBN13: 9780471280606
• ISBN10: 0471280607
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-08-11
• Publisher: Wiley-IEEE Press

Summary

This is a comprehensive textbook for the new trend of distributed power generation systems and renewable energy sources in electric power systems. It covers the complete range of topics from fundamental concepts to major technologies as well as advanced topics for power consumers.An Instructor's Manual presenting detailed solutions to all the problems in the book is available from the Wiley editorial department -- to obtain the manual, send an email to [e-mail]

Author Biography

GILBERT M. MASTERS received his PhD in electrical engineering from Stanford University and has taught courses there for the past twenty-five years on energy and the environment, with an emphasis on efficiency and renewables. He is currently Professor (Emeritus) of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford University and the author of several books on environmental engineering.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
1 Basic Electric and Magnetic Circuits	1	(50)
1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits	1	(1)
1.2 Definitions of Key Electrical Quantities	2	(7)
1.2.1 Charge	2	(1)
1.2.2 Current	3	(1)
1.2.3 Kirchhoff's Current Law	3	(2)
1.2.4 Voltage	5	(2)
1.2.5 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law	7	(1)
1.2.6 Power	7	(1)
1.2.7 Energy	8	(1)
1.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities	8	(1)
1.3 Idealized Voltage and Current Sources	9	(1)
1.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source	9	(1)
1.3.2 Ideal Current Source	10	(1)
1.4 Electrical Resistance	10	(11)
1.4.1 Ohm's Law	10	(2)
1.4.2 Resistors in Series	12	(1)
1.4.3 Resistors in Parallel	13	(2)
1.4.4 The Voltage Divider	15	(1)
1.4.5 Wire Resistance	16	(5)
1.5 Capacitance	21	(3)
1.6 Magnetic Circuits	24	(5)
1.6.1 Electromagnetism	24	(2)
1.6.2 Magnetic Circuits	26	(3)
1.7 Inductance	29	(7)
1.7.1 Physics of Inductors	29	(4)
1.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors	33	(3)
1.8 Transformers	36	(8)
1.8.1 Ideal Transformers	37	(3)
1.8.2 Magnetization Losses	40	(4)
Problems	44	(7)
2 Fundamentals of Electric Power	51	(56)
2.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current	51	(4)
2.2 Idealized Components Subjected to Sinusoidal Voltages	55	(6)
2.2.1 Ideal Resistors	55	(2)
2.2.2 Idealized Capacitors	57	(2)
2.2.3 Idealized Inductors	59	(2)
2.3 Power Factor	61	(2)
2.4 The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction	63	(4)
2.5 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring	67	(2)
2.6 Three-Phase Systems	69	(8)
2.6.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems	70	(6)
2.6.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems	76	(1)
2.7 Power Supplies	77	(9)
2.7.1 Linear Power Supplies	78	(4)
2.7.2 Switching Power Supplies	82	(4)
2.8 Power Quality	86	(13)
2.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics	87	(5)
2.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion	92	(2)
2.8.3 Harmonics and Voltage Notching	94	(1)
2.8.4 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals	95	(3)
2.8.5 Harmonics in Transformers	98	(1)
References	99	(1)
Problems	99	(8)
3 The Electric Power Industry	107	(62)
3.1 The Early Pioneers: Edison, Westinghouse, and Insull	108	(3)
3.2 The Electric Utility Industry Today	111	(6)
3.2.1 Utilities and Nonutilities	111	(1)
3.2.2 Industry Statistics	112	(5)
3.3 Polyphase Synchronous Generators	117	(5)
3.3.1 A Simple Generator	118	(1)
3.3.2 Single-Phase Synchronous Generators	119	(2)
3.3.3 Three-Phase Synchronous Generators	121	(1)
3.4 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines	122	(5)
3.4.1 Heat Engines	123	(1)
3.4.2 Entropy and the Carrot Heat Engine	123	(4)
3.5 Steam-Cycle Power Plants	127	(4)
3.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants	127	(1)
3.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants	128	(3)
3.6 Combustion Gas Turbines	131	(2)
3.6.1 Basic Gas Turbine	132	(1)
3.6.2 Steam-Injected Gas Turbines (STIG)	133	(1)
3.7 Combined-Cycle Power Plants	133	(1)
3.8 Gas Turbines and Combined-Cycle Cogeneration	134	(1)
3.9 Baseload, Intermediate and Peaking Power Plants	135	(165)
3.9.1 Screening Curves	137	(4)
3.9.2 Load-Duration Curves	141	(4)
3.10 Transmission and Distribution	145	(6)
3.10.1 The National Transmission Grid	146	(2)
3.10.2 Transmission Lines	148	(3)
3.11 The Regulatory Side of Electric Power	151	(4)
3.11.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA)	152	(1)
3.11.2 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA)	153	(1)
3.11.3 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct)	153	(1)
3.11.4 FERC Order 888 and Order 2000	154	(1)
3.11.5 Utilities and Nonutility Generators	154	(1)
3.12 The Emergence of Competitive Markets:	155	(7)
3.12.1 Technology Motivating Restructuring	156	(1)
3.12.2 California Begins to Restructure	157	(3)
3.12.3 Collapse of "Deregulation" in California	160	(2)
References	162	(1)
Problems	163	(6)
4 Distributed Generation	169	(62)
4.1 Electricity Generation in Transition	169	(1)
4.2 Distributed Generation with Fossil Fuels	170	(13)
4.2.1 HHV and LHV	171	(1)
4.2.2 Microcombustion Turbines	172	(5)
4.2.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines	177	(3)
4.2.4 Stirling Engines	180	(3)
4.3 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Technologies	183	(9)
4.3.1 Solar Dish/Stirling Power Systems	183	(2)
4.3.2 Parabolic Troughs	185	(4)
4.3.3 Solar Central Receiver Systems	189	(1)
4.3.4 Some Comparisons of Concentrating Solar Power Systems	190	(2)
4.4 Biomass for Electricity	192	(2)
4.5 Micro-Hydropower Systems	194	(12)
4.5.1 Power From a Micro-Hydro Plant	195	(3)
4.5.2 Pipe Losses	198	(3)
4.5.3 Measuring Flow	201	(2)
4.5.4 Turbines	203	(2)
4.5.5 Electrical Aspects of Micro-Hydro	205	(1)
4.6 Fuel Cells	206	(22)
4.6.1 Historical Development	208	(1)
4.6.2 Basic Operation of Fuel Cells	209	(1)
4.6.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics: Enthalpy	210	(3)
4.6.4 Entropy and the Theoretical Efficiency of Fuel Cells	213	(4)
4.6.5 Gibbs Free Energy and Fuel Cell Efficiency	217	(1)
4.6.6 Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell	218	(1)
4.6.7 Electrical Characteristics of Real Fuel Cells	219	(2)
4.6.8 Types of Fuel Cells	221	(3)
4.6.9 Hydrogen Production	224	(4)
References	228	(1)
Problems	229	(2)
5 Economics of Distributed Resources	231	(76)
5.1 Distributed Resources (DR)	231	(2)
5.2 Electric Utility Rate Structures	233	(7)
5.2.1 Standard Residential Rates	233	(2)
5.2.2 Residential Time-of-Use (TOU) Rates	235	(1)
5.2.3 Demand Charges	236	(1)
5.2.4 Demand Charges with a Ratchet Adjustment	237	(2)
5.2.5 Load Factor	239	(1)
5.2.6 Real-Time Pricing (RTP)	240	(1)
5.3 Energy Economics	240	(16)
5.3.1 Simple Payback Period	241	(1)
5.3.2 Initial (Simple) Rate-of-Return	241	(1)
5.3.3 Net Present Value	242	(2)
5.3.4 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)	244	(2)
5.3.5 NPV and IRR with Fuel Escalation	246	(2)
5.3.6 Annualizing the Investment	248	(3)
5.3.7 Levelized Bus-Bar Costs	251	(3)
5.3.8 Cash-Flow Analysis	254	(2)
5.4 Energy Conservation Supply Curves	256	(4)
5.5 Combined Heat and Power (CHP)	260	(11)
5.5.1 Energy-efficiency Measures of Combined Heat and Power (Cogeneration)	261	(3)
5.5.2 Impact of Usable Thermal Energy on CHP Economics	264	(5)
5.5.3 Design Strategies for CHP	269	(2)
5.6 Cooling, Heating, and Cogeneration	271	(9)
5.6.1 Compressive Refrigeration	271	(3)
5.6.2 Heat Pumps	274	(3)
5.6.3 Absorption Cooling	277	(1)
5.6.4 Desiccant Dehumidification	278	(2)
5.7 Distributed Benefits	280	(11)
5.7.1 Option Values	281	(5)
5.7.2 Distribution Cost Deferral	286	(1)
5.7.3 Electrical Engineering Cost Benefits	287	(1)
5.7.4 Reliability Benefits	288	(1)
5.7.5 Emissions Benefits	289	(2)
5.8 Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) and Demand-Side Management (DSM)	291	(9)
5.8.1 Disincentives Caused by Traditional Rate-Making	292	(1)
5.8.2 Necessary Conditions for Successful DSM Programs	293	(2)
5.8.3 Cost Effectiveness Measures of DSM	295	(3)
5.8.4 Achievements of DSM	298	(2)
References	300	(1)
Problems	300	(7)
6 Wind Power Systems	307	(78)
6.1 Historical Development of Wind Power	307	(2)
6.2 Types of Wind Turbines	309	(3)
6.3 Power in the Wind	312	(7)
6.3.1 Temperature Correction for Air Density	314	(2)
6.3.2 Altitude Correction for Air Density	316	(3)
6.4 Impact of Tower Height	319	(4)
6.5 Maximum Rotor Efficiency	323	(5)
6.6 Wind Turbine Generators	328	(7)
6.6.1 Synchronous Generators	328	(1)
6.6.2 The Asynchronous Induction Generator	329	(6)
6.7 Speed Control for Maximum Power	335	(3)
6.7.1 Importance of Variable Rotor Speeds	335	(1)
6.7.2 Pole-Changing Induction Generators	336	(1)
6.7.3 Multiple Gearboxes	337	(1)
6.7.4 Variable-Slip Induction Generators	337	(1)
6.7.5 Indirect Grid Connection Systems	337	(1)
6.8 Average Power in the Wind	338	(11)
6.8.1 Discrete Wind Histogram	338	(4)
6.8.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions	342	(1)
6.8.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics	343	(2)
6.8.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics	345	(2)
6.8.5 Wind Power Classifications and U.S. Potential	347	(2)
6.9 Simple Estimates of Wind Turbine Energy	349	(30)
6.9.1 Annual Energy Using Average Wind Turbine Efficiency	350	(1)
6.9.2 Wind Farms	351	(3)
6.10 Specific Wind Turbine Performance Calculations	354	(17)
6.10.1 Some Aerodynamics	354	(1)
6.10.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve	355	(2)
6.10.3 Optimizing Rotor Diameter and Generator Rated Power	357	(1)
6.10.4 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribiltion Function	357	(4)
6.10.5 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics	361	(6)
6.10.6 Using Capacity Factor to Estimate Energy Produced	367	(4)
6.11 Wind Turbine Economics	371	(6)
6.11.1 Capital Costs and Annual Costs	371	(2)
6.11.2 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines	373	(4)
6.12 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines	377	(1)
References	378	(1)
Problems	379	(6)
7 The Solar Resource	385	(60)
7.1 The Solar Spectrum	385	(5)
7.2 The Earth's Orbit	390	(1)
7.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon	391	(4)
7.4 Solar Position at any Time of Day	395	(3)
7.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis	398	(4)
7.6 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time	402	(2)
7.7 Sunrise and Sunset	404	(6)
7.8 Clear Sky Direct-Beam Radiation	410	(3)
7.9 Total Clear Sky Insolation on a Collecting Surface	413	(11)
7.9.1 Direct-Beam Radiation	413	(2)
7.9.2 Diffuse Radiation	415	(2)
7.9.3 Reflected Radiation	417	(2)
7.9.4 Tracking Systems	419	(5)
7.10 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation	424	(4)
7.11 Solar Radiation Measurements	428	(3)
7.12 Average Monthly Insolation	431	(8)
References	439	(1)
Problems	439	(6)
8 Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical Characteristics	445	(60)
8.1 Introduction	445	(3)
8.2 Basic Semiconductor Physics	448	(12)
8.2.1 The Band Gap Energy	448	(4)
8.2.2 The Solar Spectrum	452	(1)
8.2.3 Band-Gap Impact on Photovoltaic Efficiency	453	(2)
8.2.4 The p-n Junction	455	(3)
8.2.5 The p-n Junction Diode	458	(2)
8.3 A Generic Photovoltaic Cell	460	(8)
8.3.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit for a Photovoltaic Cell	460	(4)
8.3.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell	464	(4)
8.4 From Cells to Modules to Arrays	468	(5)
8.4.1 From Cells to a Module	468	(3)
8.4.2 From Modules to Arrays	471	(2)
8.5 The PV I-V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions (STC)	473	(2)
8.6 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I -V Curves	475	(2)
8.7 Shading impacts on I-V curves	477	(8)
8.7.1 Physics of Shading	478	(3)
8.7.2 Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation	481	(4)
8.7.3 Blocking Diodes	485	(1)
8.8 Crystalline Silicon Technologies	485	(7)
8.8.1 Single-Crystal Czochralski (CZ) Silicon	486	(3)
8.8.2 Ribbon Silicon Technologies	489	(2)
8.8.3 Cast Multicrystalline Silicon	491	(1)
8.8.4 Crystalline Silicon Modules	491	(1)
8.9 Thin-Film Photovoltaics	492	(9)
8.9.1 Amorphous Silicon	493	(5)
8.9.2 Gallium Arsenide and Indium Phosphide	498	(1)
8.9.3 Cadmium Telluride	499	(1)
8.9.4 Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS)	500	(1)
References	501	(1)
Problems	502	(3)
9 Photovoltaic Systems	505	(101)
9.1 Introduction to the Major Photovoltaic System Types	505	(3)
9.2 Current-Voltage Curves for Loads	508	(13)
9.2.1 Simple Resistive-Load I-V Curve	508	(2)
9.2.2 DC Motor I - V Curve	510	(2)
9.2.3 Battery I -V Curves	512	(2)
9.2.4 Maximum Power Point Trackers	514	(4)
9.2.5 Hourly I -V Curves	518	(3)
9.3 Grid-Connected Systems	521	(21)
9.3.1 Interfacing with the Utility	523	(2)
9.3.2 DC and AC Rated Power	525	(3)
9.3.3 The "Peak-Hours" Approach to Estimating PV Performance	528	(5)
9.3.4 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems	533	(1)
9.3.5 Grid-Connected System Sizing	534	(8)
9.4 Grid-Connected PV System Economics	542	(8)
9.4.1 System Trade-offs	542	(2)
9.4.2 Dollar-per-Watt Ambiguities	544	(1)
9.4.3 Amortizing Costs	545	(5)
9.5 Stand-Alone PV Systems	550	(34)
9.5.1 Estimating the Load	551	(3)
9.5.2 The Inverter and the System Voltage	554	(3)
9.5.3 Batteries	557	(2)
9.5.4 Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries	559	(3)
9.5.5 Battery Storage Capacity	562	(3)
9.5.6 Coulomb Efficiency Instead of Energy Efficiency	565	(3)
9.5.7 Battery Sizing	568	(4)
9.5.8 Blocking Diodes	572	(3)
9.5.9 Sizing the PV Array	575	(4)
9.5.10 Hybrid PV Systems	579	(1)
9.5.11 Stand-Alone System Design Summary	580	(4)
9.6 PV-Powered Water Pumping	584	(11)
9.6.1 Hydraulic System Curves	585	(3)
9.6.2 Hydraulic Pump Curves	588	(3)
9.6.3 Hydraulic System Curve and Pump Curve Combined	591	(1)
9.6.4 A Simple Directly Coupled PV-Pump Design Approach	592	(3)
References	595	(1)
Problems	595	(11)
APPENDIX A Useful Conversion Factors	606	(5)
APPENDIX B Sun-Path Diagrams	611	(4)
APPENDIX C Hourly Clear-Sky Insolation Tables	615	(10)
APPENDIX D Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation Tables	625	(4)
APPENDIX E Solar Insolation Tables by City	629	(12)
APPENDIX F Maps of Solar Insolation	641	(6)
Index	647