Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology

by Champion, Dean J.

• ISBN13: 9780131189287
• ISBN10: 013118928X
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-03-11
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology3e is about how to do research and investigate various types of research questions that arise in criminology and criminal justice. A complete discussion of research ethicsincluding ethical issues relating to the Nuremberg Code, research sponsorship, rights of human subjects and deception - helps readers understand their ethical responsibilities as researchers.This book explores the entire criminal justices and criminology research process from beginning to end including: sampling procedures; data collection techniques; measurement, validity and reliability issues; the role of ethics in the research process; and writing and documenting research papers.Presents a practical guide for conducting research in criminal justice and criminology careers.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
The Research Enterprise in Criminal Justice and Criminology	1	(64)
Chapter Objectives	1	(1)
Introduction	1	(4)
Overview of the Research Process	5	(1)
The Research Enterprise	5	(1)
Steps to Conduct Research in Criminal Justice	5	(13)
Problem Formulation	6	(3)
Research Design	9	(1)
Data Collection Methods	9	(4)
Analysis of Data	13	(1)
Presentation of Findings	13	(1)
Conclusions	14	(4)
Pure and Applied Research	18	(1)
Some Basic Assumptions about Criminal Justice and Criminology	19	(5)
Why Do Research?	24	(1)
The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice	25	(4)
The Probability Nature of Science	26	(2)
Objectivity in Scientific Research	28	(1)
Functions of Research	29	(4)
Exploratory Functions	29	(1)
Descriptive Functions	30	(1)
Experimental Functions	31	(2)
Evaluation Research	33	(5)
Theory Defined	38	(4)
Assumptions, Propositions, and Definitions	38	(2)
Explanation and Prediction	40	(2)
Types of Theory	42	(11)
Deductive Theory	42	(2)
Inductive Theory	44	(1)
Grounded Theory	45	(6)
Axiomatic Theory	51	(2)
Variables and Theory	53	(4)
Independent Variables	54	(1)
Dependent Variables	54	(2)
Discrete Variables	56	(1)
Continuous Variables	57	(1)
Casual Relations between Variables	57	(1)
The Complementarity of Theory and Research	58	(2)
Hypotheses and Theory: A Preliminary View	58	(2)
The Value of Theory	60	(1)
Atheoretical Evaluations	60	(1)
The Value of Research	61	(1)
Summary	61	(2)
Questions for Review	63	(2)
Frames of Reference and Problem Formulation	65	(34)
Chapter Outline	65	(1)
Chapter Objectives	65	(1)
Introduction	66	(1)
What Are Frames of Reference?	67	(4)
Choosing a Frame of Reference	69	(1)
Values and Frames of Reference	69	(1)
Are Frames of Reference Used in All Research?	70	(1)
Frames of Reference and Theory	71	(1)
Deciding What to Study: Topics of Investigation for Criminal Justice and Criminology	72	(4)
Reviewing the Literature	76	(13)
Sources for Literature Reviews	80	(3)
``Hands-On'' Research and Investigations from a Distance	83	(1)
``Hands-On'' Research	83	(4)
Investigations from a Distance	87	(1)
The Uniform Crime Reports and the National Crime Victimization Survey	87	(2)
Issues in Formulating Research Problems	89	(6)
Summary	95	(3)
Questions for Review	98	(1)
Research Designs	99	(49)
Chapter Outline	99	(1)
Chapter Objectives	99	(1)
Introduction	100	(2)
Qualitative and Quantitative Research	102	(2)
Qualitative Research	102	(1)
Quantitative Research	103	(1)
Research Objectives and Designs	104	(7)
Exploration and Exploratory Objectives	105	(1)
Description and Descriptive Objectives	106	(2)
Experimentation and Experimental Objectives	108	(3)
Some Conventional Research Designs	111	(11)
Surveys	111	(6)
Case Studies	117	(4)
Comparison of Surveys and Case Studies	121	(1)
Classic Experimental Design	122	(8)
Experimental and Control Groups	122	(2)
Equivalent Groups and Establishing Equivalence	124	(4)
Pretests and Posttests	128	(2)
Variations in the Classic Experimental Design	130	(9)
The After-Only Design	130	(1)
The Before-After Design	131	(1)
True Experiments and Quasi-Experiments	132	(2)
Time-Series and Multiple Time-Series Designs	134	(3)
Cost-Benefit Analyses	137	(2)
Internal and External Validity	139	(4)
Internal Validity and Threats	139	(2)
External Validity and Threats	141	(2)
Summary	143	(4)
Questions for Review	147	(1)
Data Collection Strategies I: Sampling Techniques, Purposes, and Problems	148	(55)
Chapter Outline	148	(1)
Chapter Objectives	148	(1)
Introduction	149	(1)
What is Sampling?	150	(3)
Populations and Parameters	150	(1)
Samples and Statistics	151	(1)
Generalizability and Representativeness	151	(2)
The Decision to Sample	153	(1)
Size of the Target Population	153	(1)
Cost of Obtaining the Elements	154	(1)
Convenience and Accessibility of the Elements	154	(1)
Some Functions of Sampling	154	(2)
Economizing Resources	155	(1)
Manageability	155	(1)
Meeting Assumptions of Statistical Tests	155	(1)
Meeting the Requirements of Experiments	155	(1)
Probability Sampling Plans	156	(18)
Randomness	160	(2)
Simple Random Sampling and Random Numbers Tables	162	(6)
Stratified Random Sampling	168	(3)
Area, Cluster, or Multistage Sampling	171	(3)
Nonprobability Sampling Plans	174	(10)
Accidental Sampling	175	(1)
Systematic Sampling	176	(2)
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling	178	(1)
Quota Sampling	179	(1)
Snowball Sampling and the Use of Informants	180	(2)
Dense and Saturation Sampling	182	(2)
Types of Sampling Situations	184	(3)
Single-Sample Situations	184	(1)
Two- and k-Sample Situations	185	(1)
Independent Samples	186	(1)
Related Samples	187	(1)
Some Selected Sampling Problems	187	(10)
Determining Sample Size	188	(1)
Nonresponse and What to Do about It	188	(4)
Is the Sample Representative? Uncertainty about Representativeness	192	(1)
Sampling and Statistical Analysis	192	(1)
Ideal and Real Sampling Considerations	193	(1)
Potentates: Juveniles, Prisoners, and Permission to Sample Special Populations of Subjects	193	(4)
Summary	197	(4)
Questions for Review	201	(2)
Data Collection Strategies II: Questionnaires	203	(40)
Chapter Outline	203	(1)
Chapter Objectives	203	(1)
Introduction	204	(1)
Questionnaires in Criminal Justice Research	205	(2)
Functions of Questionnaires	207	(4)
Description	207	(4)
Measurement	211	(1)
Types of Questionnaires	211	(9)
Fixed-Response Questionnaires	211	(3)
Open-Ended Questionnaires	214	(1)
Combinations of Fixed-Response and Open-Ended Items	215	(1)
Comparison of Fixed-Response and Open-Ended Items	216	(4)
Questionnaire Administration	220	(6)
Mailed Questionnaires	220	(5)
Face-to-Face Questionnaire Administration	225	(1)
Comparison of Mailed Questionnaires with Face-to-Face Questionnaire Administration	225	(1)
Questionnaire Construction	226	(5)
Selecting and Ordering the Questionnaire Items	228	(3)
Response and Nonresponse: Some Considerations	231	(7)
Questionnaire Length	231	(1)
Questionnaire Content and Wording: Possible Sources of Bias	231	(1)
Double-Barreled Questions	232	(1)
The Use of Certain Key Words	232	(1)
Anonymity	233	(1)
Self-Reports	234	(1)
Research Applications of Self-Reports	234	(2)
How Do You Know Respondents Tell the Truth? The Lie Factor	236	(1)
Cultural Values and Questionnaire Wording	237	(1)
Other Factors	238	(1)
What about Nonresponse?	239	(1)
Summary	239	(3)
Questions for Review	242	(1)
Data Collection Strategies III: Interviews	243	(52)
Chapter Outline	243	(1)
Chapter Objectives	243	(1)
Introduction	244	(2)
Interviews as Instruments in Criminal Justice Research	246	(1)
Interviews Contrasted with Questionnaires	247	(1)
Types of Interviews	248	(20)
Unstructured Interviews	248	(3)
Structured Interviews and the Focused Interview	251	(6)
In-Depth Interviews	257	(8)
Telephone Interviews	265	(3)
Functions of Interviewing	268	(4)
Description	268	(1)
Exploration	268	(4)
Interview Construction	272	(12)
Conducting Interviews	284	(5)
Gaining Access to Organizations	284	(1)
Arranging the Interview	285	(1)
Training and Orientation for Interviewers	285	(1)
What Makes a Good Interviewer? Personality Factors	286	(1)
Dressing Appropriately	286	(1)
Probing	287	(1)
Videotaping or Tape-Recording Interviews	288	(1)
The Use of Lie Detectors and Polygraph Tests	288	(1)
Interviewing May Be Dangerous	288	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews in Criminal Justice Research	289	(2)
Summary	291	(3)
Questions for Review	294	(1)
Data Collection Strategies IV: Observational Techniques and the Use of Secondary Sources	295	(39)
Chapter Outline	295	(1)
Chapter Objectives	295	(1)
Introduction	296	(1)
What is Observation?	297	(1)
Major Purposes of Observation	298	(1)
Types of Observation	299	(3)
Participant Observation	299	(1)
Nonparticipant Observation and Unobtrusive Observation	300	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation in Criminological Research	302	(4)
Impact of the Observer on the Observed	306	(1)
Impact of the Observed on the Observer	307	(2)
Analysis of Secondary Sources	309	(12)
The Major Features of Secondary Sources	309	(1)
Types of Secondary Sources	309	(11)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Sources	320	(1)
Content Analysis	321	(5)
Some Examples of Content Analysis	321	(5)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis	326	(1)
Official and Criminal Justice Agency Records	326	(1)
Canned Data Sets	327	(1)
Meta-Analysis	327	(3)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Meta-Analysis	329	(1)
Summary	330	(3)
Questions for Review	333	(1)
Measurement of Variables in Criminal Justice and Criminology	334	(63)
Chapter Outline	334	(1)
Chapter Objectives	334	(1)
Introduction	335	(2)
Measurement of Variables in Criminology and Criminal Justice	337	(8)
Functions of Measurement	338	(1)
Conceptualizations of Social and Psychological Phenomena	338	(1)
Rendering Data Amenable to Statistical Treatment	338	(1)
Assisting in Hypothesis Testing and Theory Verification	339	(5)
Differentiating between People According to Properties They Possess	344	(1)
Hypotheses: Operationalizing Variables	345	(6)
Nominal and Operational Definitions	345	(2)
Concepts	347	(1)
Constructs	347	(4)
Levels of Measurement	351	(8)
Nominal Level of Measurement	355	(1)
Ordinal Level of Measurement	355	(1)
Interval Level of Measurement	356	(1)
Ratio Level of Measurement	357	(2)
Types of Scaling Procedures for Measuring Variables	359	(16)
Likert-Type Scales	359	(11)
Thurstone Scales and Equal-Appearing Intervals	370	(5)
Other Types of Scaling Procedures	375	(11)
Guttman Scaling	375	(5)
The Semenatic Differential	380	(2)
Q-Sort	382	(1)
The Sellin--Wolfgang Crime Severity Index	383	(1)
The Salient Factor Score (SFS 81)	383	(2)
Greenwood's Rand Seven-Factor Index	385	(1)
Some Issues of Measurement	386	(6)
Attitude-Action Relation	386	(1)
Social Desirability as a Contaminating Factor	387	(2)
Response Sets and Validity	389	(1)
The Level of Measurement--Statistical Choices Relation	390	(2)
Summary	392	(3)
Questions for Review	395	(2)
Validity and Reliability of Measures	397	(43)
Chapter Outline	397	(1)
Chapter Objectives	397	(1)
Introduction	398	(1)
Validity Defined	399	(2)
Types of Validity	401	(11)
Content Validity	401	(4)
Pragmatic Validity	405	(5)
Construct Validity	410	(2)
Reliability Defined	412	(1)
Why is it Important to Have Reliable Measures?	412	(1)
Types of Reliability	413	(12)
Internal Reliability Checks	414	(8)
External Reliability Checks	422	(3)
Some Functional Relationships between Validity and Reliability	425	(1)
Factors that Affect Validity and Reliability	425	(10)
The Instrument and Its Contents	426	(1)
Environmental Factors	427	(1)
Personal Factors	427	(1)
Researcher Interpretations	428	(1)
Testing (Pretest) Effect	429	(1)
Selection Bias	429	(1)
Experimental Mortality	430	(1)
Hawthorne Effect	431	(1)
Halo Effect	432	(1)
Placebo Effect	433	(1)
Diffusion of Treatment with Control and Experimental Groups	434	(1)
Summary	435	(3)
Questions for Review	438	(2)
Data Coding, Presentation, and Description Techniques	440	(37)
Chapter Outline	440	(1)
Chapter Objectives	440	(1)
Introduction	440	(2)
Coding Variables	442	(8)
Verification and Cleaning Data	450	(2)
Simple Data Presentation	452	(1)
Measures of Crime and Crime Rates	452	(4)
Crime Rates	452	(3)
Ratios	455	(1)
Graphic Presentation	456	(1)
Functions of Graphic Presentation	456	(4)
Types of Graphic Presentation	460	(3)
Pie Charts	460	(1)
Bar Graphs	461	(2)
Tabular Presentation and Cross-Tabulation	463	(10)
Tables and How to Read Them	463	(10)
Other Forms of Tabular Presentation	473	(1)
Deciding How Best to Present Your Information	473	(2)
Summary	475	(1)
Questions for Review	476	(1)
Hypothesis Testing and Theory Verification	477	(29)
Chapter Outline	477	(1)
Chapter Objectives	477	(1)
Introduction	477	(2)
Hypotheses and Theory	479	(4)
Types of Hypotheses, Hypothesis Construction, and Hypothesis Sets	483	(10)
Research Hypotheses	483	(1)
Null Hypotheses	484	(4)
Statistical Hypotheses	488	(2)
Where do Hypotheses Come From?	490	(3)
Hypothesis Formulation: Good, Better, and Best	493	(1)
Functions of Hypotheses	493	(1)
Single-Variable, Two-Variable, and K-Variable Hypotheses	494	(2)
Single-Variable Hypotheses	494	(1)
Two-Variable Hypotheses	494	(1)
K-Variable Hypotheses	495	(1)
Hypothesis Testing	496	(1)
Interpreting the Results of Hypothesis Tests	497	(7)
Theoretical Considerations	500	(1)
Sampling Considerations	500	(3)
Measurement Considerations	503	(1)
Data Collection Procedures as a Consideration	503	(1)
Statistical Considerations	503	(1)
Participant Observation as a Consideration	503	(1)
Summary	504	(1)
Questions for Review	505	(1)
Ethics in Research	506	(49)
Chapter Outline	506	(1)
Chapter Objectives	506	(1)
Introduction	507	(1)
Ethics Defined	507	(1)
Ethical Practices in Criminal Justice Organizations Distinguished from Ethical Dilemmas in Research	508	(3)
Ethics and Social Responsibility	511	(2)
Ethics and Criminological Research	513	(1)
Types of Ethical Problems in Research	514	(17)
Plagiarism	514	(2)
Fraudulent Research and Statistical Manipulation	516	(1)
Research Potentially Harmful to Human Subjects	516	(8)
Deception: Lying to Respondents	524	(1)
Accessing Confidential Records and Information	525	(4)
Sex Offenders: Sexual Histories and Stimulus--Response Experiments	529	(1)
Granting Permission to Study Subordinates, Potentates, and Juveniles	530	(1)
The Nuremberg Code	531	(1)
Professional Associations and the Development of Ethical Standards for Research	532	(8)
University Guidelines for Research Projects: The Use of Human Subjects	540	(4)
Ethical Issues	544	(8)
Sponsored Research and Investigator Interests: Choice or Chance?	544	(2)
Rights of Human Subjects	546	(3)
Informed Consent and How Personal Information Will Be Used	549	(3)
Summary	552	(2)
Questions for Review	554	(1)
APPENDIX: WRITING PAPERS AND RESEARCH REPORTS	555	(24)
Introduction	555	(1)
Types of Papers and Research Reports	555	(10)
Term Papers	555	(2)
Reviews of the Literature	557	(1)
Critical Essays and Position Papers	558	(1)
Research Papers	558	(1)
Master's Theses and Doctoral Dissertations	558	(2)
A Thesis/Dissertation Proposal Outline	560	(5)
Sources for References	565	(10)
Legal Research in Criminal Justice	575	(4)
U.S. Supreme Court Decisions	576	(1)
Lower Federal Court Opinions	577	(1)
State Supreme Court Decisions	578	(1)
Glossary	579	(26)
References	605	(12)
Index	617

Excerpts

Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology (3/e)is about how to do research and investigate various types of research questions that arise in criminology and criminal justice. Why do police officers sometimes use excessive force when subduing criminal suspects who seemingly offer no resistance to arrest? Why do youths join gangs and commit violent acts? Why do some persons become career criminals? Which types of supervision work best for those on parole? What interventions seem to work best in preventing delinquency? Why do nonwhites seem to receive harsher sentences from judges compared with whites in many jurisdictions? Does the death penalty deter persons from committing murder? Why do public defenders appear less effective in defending their clients against criminal charges in court compared with privately appointed counsel? These are just some of the endless kinds of questions criminologists and criminal justice professionals examine when they conduct research.In the social sciences, there is a broad range of research strategies, including a variety of data collection techniques and other analytical tools that exist to serve the needs of most professionals who conduct different kinds of research investigations. While certain research procedures may be relevant for one type of investigation, these same procedures may not be equally suitable for other investigations. There are many research strategies that investigators may choose to collect information to answer any issues they may choose to investigate.This book explores the entire research process from beginning to end. This exploration begins with an examination of theorizing about different kinds of research questions and why different kinds of events occur. Generally theories are designed to offer explanations for why certain events occur and make predictions about them. There are different kinds of theory that can be used by investigators who want to explain why certain events happen- Because different kinds of theory exist, researchers have choices they can make in deciding which theories are best for assisting them in answering particular research questions. This book examines different types of theory and explains the weaknesses and strengths of these theories for particular research questions.When a particular research question is raised, criminologists don't always agree on which answers to these questions seem most plausible. Every social scientist has a point of view or a frame of reference for viewing different kinds of issues or research questions. These frames of reference almost always influence one's approach taken in attempting to explain crime, delinquency, and other related events. Also, the way a problem or question is examined will suggest a particular theoretical approach. Thus, the relation between frames of reference and theories will be examined.Most criminological investigations involve studying people under different types of circumstances: police officers. judges, inmates of prisons or jails, correctional officers, juveniles, defense counsels and prosecutors, probationers or parolees, probation officers or parole officers, community corrections personnel, including volunteers and paraprofessionals, jury members, those on pretrial diversion, and others. It is beyond the resources of most investigators to study all persons about which information is sought. Therefore, only some of these persons are selected for investigation. This is called sampling. There are many types of sampling, and again, researchers have choices about which types of sampling methods they will use in any given set of circumstances. This book examines sampling procedures in great detail, including a broad discussion of sampling issues.Also, these are many ways information about research questions can be gathered. Information may be gathered by examining public documents in a library. Or persons may be interviewe