Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods: Theory and Method | p. 1 |
Scientific Research in Criminal Justice | p. 2 |
Common Sense and Nonsense | p. 3 |
Why Study Research Methods in Criminal Justice? | p. 5 |
The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice | p. 6 |
The Probabilistic Nature of Science | p. 8 |
Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry | p. 8 |
Approaches to Theory and Method in Criminal Justice | p. 9 |
Merton's "Matthew Effect" in Science | p. 10 |
The Paradigm Shift in Policing | p. 11 |
Pure Versus Applied Research | p. 13 |
The Project on Human Development | p. 16 |
Crime Analysis: Applied Criminal Justice Research | p. 18 |
Qualitative and Quantitative Research | p. 19 |
Researchese: the Language of Research | p. 20 |
Concepts | p. 20 |
Operationalization | p. 21 |
Variables | p. 21 |
Dependent and Independent Variables | p. 21 |
Theories/Hypotheses | p. 21 |
Examples of the Research Process | p. 22 |
Recidivism among Juvenile Offenders | p. 24 |
General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal Justice | p. 24 |
Problem Formulation: Selection of Research Problem | p. 25 |
Problem Formulation: Specification of Research Problem | p. 26 |
Feminist Perspectives and Research Methods | p. 27 |
The World Wide Web (WWW) | p. 30 |
Ethics in Criminal Justice Research | p. 33 |
Ethical Horror Stories | p. 34 |
Biomedical Examples | p. 34 |
Social Science Examples | p. 34 |
AIDS Research in Africa and Asia: Is It Ethical? | p. 37 |
Researcher Fraud and Plagiarism | p. 40 |
Legendary Research Scams | p. 41 |
The Researcher's Role | p. 42 |
Research Targets in Criminal Justice | p. 43 |
Ethics and Professionalism | p. 43 |
Ethics in Criminal Justice Research | p. 44 |
History of Federal Regulation of Research | p. 45 |
The Belmont Report | p. 47 |
Institutional Review Boards | p. 48 |
Research Activities Exempt from HHS Review | p. 49 |
National Institute of Justice's Human Subject Protection Requirements | p. 51 |
Confidentiality of Criminal Justice Research | p. 52 |
Codes of Research Ethics of the ACJS and the ASC | p. 53 |
Ethical Issues in Criminology/Criminal Justice Research | p. 56 |
Avoid Research That May Harm Respondents | p. 57 |
Honor Commitments to Respondents and Respect Reciprocity | p. 58 |
Exercise Objectivity and Professional Integrity in Performing and Reporting Research | p. 58 |
Protect Confidentiality and Privacy of Respondents | p. 59 |
Ethical Problems | p. 60 |
The Brajuha Case (Weinstein Decision) | p. 62 |
The Ofshe Case | p. 63 |
The Hutchinson Case | p. 64 |
Additional Ethical Concerns | p. 66 |
Avoiding Ethical Problems | p. 67 |
Research Design: The Experimental Model and Its Variations | p. 70 |
The Experimental Model | p. 71 |
Research Design in a Nutshell | p. 72 |
Causality | p. 72 |
Resolution of the Causality Problem | p. 72 |
Rival Causal Factors | p. 74 |
Validity | p. 75 |
Internal Factors: Variables Related to Internal Validity | p. 75 |
History | p. 75 |
Maturation | p. 76 |
Testing | p. 77 |
Instrumentation | p. 77 |
Statistical Regression | p. 77 |
Selection Bias | p. 78 |
Experimental Mortality | p. 78 |
Selection--Maturation Interaction | p. 79 |
External Factors: Variables Related to External Validity | p. 79 |
Testing Effects | p. 79 |
Selection Bias | p. 80 |
Reactivity or Awareness of Being Studied | p. 80 |
Multiple-Treatment Interferences | p. 80 |
Related Rival Causal Factors | p. 81 |
Hawthorne Effect | p. 81 |
Halo Effect | p. 81 |
Post Hoc Error | p. 81 |
Placebo Effect | p. 82 |
Other Rival Causal Factors in Criminal Justice Field Experiments | p. 82 |
Diffusion of Treatment | p. 83 |
Compensatory Equalization of Treatment | p. 83 |
Local History | p. 83 |
Experimental Designs | p. 84 |
The Classic Experimental Design | p. 86 |
Some Criminal Justice Examples of the Classic Experimental Design | p. 86 |
Candid Camera | p. 86 |
Scared Straight | p. 86 |
Community Policing | p. 87 |
The Kansas City Gun Experiment | p. 89 |
Other Experimental Designs | p. 88 |
Posttest-Only Control Group Design | p. 88 |
Solomon Four-Group Design | p. 91 |
Preexperimental Designs | p. 92 |
One-Group Ex Post Facto Design | p. 92 |
One-Group Before-After Design | p. 93 |
Two-Group Ex Post Facto Design | p. 93 |
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs | p. 94 |
The Cycle of Violence and Victims of Child Abuse | p. 95 |
Quasi-Experimental Designs | p. 96 |
Time-Series Designs | p. 96 |
Multiple Interrupted Time-Series Designs | p. 96 |
Counterbalanced Designs | p. 99 |
Some Other Criminal Justice Examples of Variations of the Experimental Model | p. 99 |
The Provo and Silverlake Experiments | p. 99 |
Evaluations of Shock Incarceration | p. 101 |
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment | p. 102 |
The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment | p. 103 |
The Experiment As a Data-Gathering Strategy | p. 104 |
Advantages of Experiments | p. 105 |
Disadvantages of Experiments | p. 105 |
An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports | p. 109 |
Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies | p. 110 |
Social Surveys | p. 111 |
Participant Observation | p. 112 |
Life History and Case Studies | p. 113 |
Unobtrusive Measures | p. 113 |
Applied Research: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | p. 114 |
The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports | p. 115 |
The Crime Index | p. 116 |
Crime Rate | p. 117 |
Cautions in the Use of UCR Data | p. 119 |
Factors Affecting the UCR | p. 119 |
Related UCR Issues | p. 121 |
The Crime Dip | p. 122 |
UCR Redesign | p. 124 |
National Incident-Based Reporting System | p. 124 |
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) | p. 125 |
NIBRS versus UCR | p. 127 |
Sampling and Survey Research: Questionnaires | p. 132 |
Types of Sampling | p. 133 |
Probability Samples | p. 133 |
Nonprobability Samples | p. 138 |
Crime Profiling | p. 142 |
Sample Size | p. 144 |
Survey Research | p. 144 |
Some Guidelines for Questionnaire Construction | p. 146 |
Questionnaire Wording | p. 147 |
Pretest | p. 151 |
Organization of the Questionnaire | p. 151 |
Mail Surveys | p. 152 |
Advantages of Mail Surveys | p. 153 |
Disadvantages of Mail Surveys | p. 154 |
Ways of Eliminating Disadvantages in Mail Surveys | p. 154 |
Follow-up | p. 155 |
Offering Remuneration | p. 156 |
Attractive Format | p. 156 |
Sponsorship and Endorsements | p. 157 |
Personalization | p. 157 |
Shortened Format | p. 158 |
Good Timing | p. 158 |
Self-Reported Measures of Crime | p. 159 |
Some Problems With Self-Report Surveys | p. 162 |
Strengths of Self-Report Surveys | p. 163 |
Reliability | p. 163 |
Validity | p. 163 |
Use of Other Data | p. 164 |
Use of Other Observers | p. 164 |
Use of Polygraph | p. 164 |
"Known Group" Validation | p. 164 |
Use of Lie Scales | p. 165 |
Measures of Internal Consistency | p. 166 |
Use of Interviews | p. 166 |
Internet Surveys | p. 166 |
Advantages of Internet Surveys | p. 167 |
Disadvantages of Internet Surveys | p. 167 |
Procedures in Internet Surveys | p. 167 |
Survey Research: Interviews and Telephone Surveys | p. 171 |
Types of Interviews | p. 172 |
Advantages of Interviews | p. 174 |
Disadvantages of Interviews | p. 175 |
Interviewing Aids and Variations | p. 175 |
Public Opinion Polls | p. 176 |
General Procedures in Interviews | p. 178 |
Training and Orientation Session | p. 178 |
Arranging the Interview | p. 178 |
Demeanor of Interviewer | p. 179 |
Administration of the Structured Interview | p. 179 |
Probing | p. 180 |
The Exit | p. 180 |
Recording the Interview | p. 181 |
Telephone Surveys | p. 182 |
Advantages and Prospects of Telephone Surveys | p. 182 |
Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys | p. 183 |
Computers in Survey Research | p. 184 |
Random Digit Dialing | p. 185 |
Techniques Employed in Telephone Surveys | p. 186 |
Victim Surveys in Criminal Justice | p. 187 |
National Crime Victimization Survey | p. 188 |
Sampling | p. 188 |
Panel Design | p. 189 |
A Comparison of UCR, Ncvs, and Self-Report Data | p. 190 |
Some Problems in Victim Surveys | p. 192 |
Cost of Large Samples | p. 192 |
False Reports | p. 192 |
Mistaken Reporting | p. 193 |
Poor Memory | p. 193 |
Telescoping | p. 193 |
Sampling Bias | p. 193 |
Overreporting and Underreporting | p. 194 |
Interviewer Effects | p. 194 |
Coding Unreliability and Mechanical Error | p. 195 |
Problems Measuring Certain Crimes | p. 195 |
Benefits of Victim Surveys | p. 195 |
A Defense of Victim Surveys | p. 196 |
Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys | p. 196 |
Bounding | p. 196 |
Reverse Record Checks | p. 197 |
Victim Surveys: A Balanced View | p. 197 |
Community Crime Victimization Survey Software | p. 198 |
Redesign of the National Crime Victimization Survey | p. 198 |
The Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey | p. 199 |
Participant Observation and Case Studies | p. 206 |
A Critique of Experiments and Surveys | p. 207 |
Verbal Reports versus Behavior | p. 207 |
A Defense of Quantitative Research | p. 209 |
Participant Observation | p. 209 |
Types of Participant Observation | p. 211 |
Characteristics of Participant Observation | p. 212 |
Objectivity in Research | p. 213 |
"Going Native" | p. 214 |
General Procedures in Participant Observation | p. 215 |
Field Notes | p. 215 |
Mnemonics | p. 216 |
Caution in Use of Other Recording Methods | p. 216 |
Tips on Participant Observation | p. 217 |
Gaining Access | p. 217 |
American Skinheads | p. 219 |
Gatekeepers | p. 220 |
Announcement of Intentions | p. 220 |
Sampling | p. 220 |
Reciprocity and Protection of Identity | p. 221 |
Concern for Accuracy | p. 222 |
Examples of Participant Observation | p. 222 |
Islands in the Streets | p. 223 |
This Thing of Darkness: A Participant Observation Study of Idaho Christian Patriots | p. 225 |
Advantages of Participant Observation | p. 225 |
Disadvantages of Participant Observation | p. 226 |
Case Studies | p. 227 |
Life History/Oral History | p. 227 |
Some Examples of Case Studies | p. 228 |
Journalistic Field Studies | p. 228 |
Single-Subject Designs | p. 229 |
Unobtrusive Measures, Secondary Analysis, and the Uses of Official Statistics | p. 233 |
Major Types of Unobtrusive Methods | p. 234 |
Physical Trace Analysis | p. 235 |
Use of Available Data and Archives | p. 236 |
Secondary Analysis | p. 237 |
Personal Documents and Biographies | p. 237 |
Examples of Secondary Analysis | p. 240 |
Automated Pin Mapping: Applied Criminal Justice Research Using GIS for Crime Analysis | p. 242 |
Street Gang Crime in Chicago | p. 244 |
Limitations of Official Data | p. 246 |
Measuring Hidden Populations | p. 246 |
Historical and Archival Data | p. 247 |
Content Analysis | p. 248 |
Content Analysis by Computer | p. 251 |
Meta-Analysis | p. 251 |
Applied Criminal Justice Research: Hotspot Analysis | p. 253 |
Sources of Existing Data | p. 254 |
X-Files at the Federal Bureau of Investigation | p. 256 |
National Archive of Criminal Justice Data | p. 258 |
Observation | p. 259 |
Disguised Observation | p. 262 |
Simulations | p. 265 |
Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures | p. 267 |
Disadvantages of Unobtrusive Measures | p. 268 |
Validity, Reliability, and Triangulated Strategies | p. 271 |
Error in Research | p. 271 |
Reasons for Lack of Validation Studies in Criminal Justice | p. 273 |
Ways of Determining Validity | p. 274 |
Face Validity | p. 274 |
Content Validity | p. 275 |
Construct Validity | p. 276 |
Pragmatic Validity | p. 276 |
Convergent-Discriminant Validation/Triangulation | p. 277 |
Reliability | p. 280 |
Test-Retest | p. 281 |
Multiple Forms | p. 281 |
Split-Half Technique | p. 282 |
Mythical Numbers | p. 282 |
Phantom Army of Addicts | p. 282 |
Adam (Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program) | p. 283 |
Adam | p. 284 |
Other Examples of Research Validation | p. 286 |
Scaling and Index Construction | p. 290 |
Levels of Measurement | p. 290 |
Score Yourself General Attitude/Knowledge Survey | p. 293 |
Scaling Procedures | p. 294 |
Arbitrary Scales | p. 295 |
The Uniform Crime Report as an Arbitrary Scale | p. 296 |
Attitude Scales | p. 297 |
Thurstone Scales | p. 297 |
Likert Scales | p. 298 |
Guttman Scales | p. 301 |
Other Scaling Procedures | p. 305 |
Q Sort | p. 305 |
Semantic Differential | p. 305 |
Other Variations | p. 307 |
Crime Seriousness Scales | p. 308 |
Sellin-Wolfgang Index | p. 309 |
Types of Crime Seriousness Scales | p. 309 |
Prediction Scales | p. 311 |
The Salient Factor Score | p. 312 |
Greenwood's "Rand Seven-Factor Index" | p. 312 |
Career Criminal Programs | p. 314 |
Advantages of Scales | p. 315 |
Disadvantages of Scales | p. 315 |
Data Analysis: Coding, Tabulation, and Simple Data Presentation | p. 318 |
Variables List | p. 319 |
Computers | p. 320 |
Data Management | p. 321 |
Editing | p. 321 |
Coding | p. 322 |
Coder Monitoring | p. 325 |
Keyboard Entry | p. 326 |
Data Verification | p. 326 |
Simple Data Presentation | p. 326 |
Rates | p. 328 |
Proportions | p. 329 |
Percentages | p. 329 |
Ratios | p. 330 |
The Frequency Distribution | p. 330 |
Graphic Presentations | p. 331 |
Pie Charts | p. 332 |
Bar Graphs | p. 333 |
Frequency Polygons (Line Charts) | p. 334 |
Crime Clocks | p. 335 |
Table Reading | p. 338 |
Why Bother with Tables? | p. 338 |
What to Look for in a Table | p. 338 |
Steps in Reading a Table | p. 338 |
Summary of Table 11.3 | p. 339 |
How to Construct Tables | p. 342 |
Presentation of Complex Data | p. 342 |
General Rules for Percentaging a Table | p. 342 |
Improper Percentaging | p. 347 |
Elaboration | p. 347 |
Lying with Statistics | p. 349 |
Data Analysis: A User's Guide to Statistics | p. 353 |
Why Study Statistics? | p. 354 |
Types of Statistics | p. 355 |
Measures of Central Tendency for a Simple Distribution | p. 356 |
Mode | p. 356 |
Median | p. 356 |
Mean | p. 357 |
Measures of Dispersion | p. 358 |
Range | p. 360 |
Standard Deviation ([sigma]) | p. 360 |
Standard Deviation Units (Z Scores) | p. 363 |
Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | p. 365 |
Calculation of Chi-Square | p. 366 |
Cautions | p. 368 |
Chi-Square-Based Measures of Association | p. 368 |
Phi Coefficient ([phi]) and Phi-Square ([phi superscript 2]) | p. 369 |
Contingency Coefficient (C) | p. 369 |
Cramer's V | p. 369 |
Nature and Types of Statistics | p. 369 |
Nonparametric Statistics | p. 370 |
Null Hypothesis | p. 370 |
Tests of Significance | p. 371 |
The t Test (Difference of Means Test) | p. 372 |
Types of t Tests | p. 373 |
Anova (Analysis of Variance) | p. 375 |
Calculation of ANOVA | p. 376 |
Other Measures of Relationship | p. 378 |
The Concept of Relationship | p. 378 |
Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r) | p. 379 |
Interpretation of Pearson's r | p. 379 |
Calculation of Pearson's r | p. 380 |
Statistical Significance of Pearson's r | p. 381 |
Regression | p. 382 |
Ordinal Level Measures of Relationship | p. 383 |
Spearman's Rho (r[subscript s]) | p. 383 |
Interpretation of Rho | p. 385 |
Gamma | p. 385 |
Multivariate Analysis | p. 388 |
Partial Correlation | p. 388 |
Multiple Correlation and Regression | p. 389 |
Statistical Software | p. 390 |
Caveat Emptor | p. 391 |
The Ecological Fallacy | p. 392 |
Policy Analysis and Evaluation Research | p. 396 |
Policy Analysis | p. 397 |
Evaluation Research | p. 398 |
Policy Experiments | p. 399 |
Policy Analysis: The Case of the National Institute of Justice Research Program | p. 400 |
NIJ Mission Statement | p. 400 |
NIJ Research Priorities | p. 401 |
A Systems Model of Evaluation Research | p. 402 |
Types of Evaluation Research | p. 403 |
Will the Findings Be Used? | p. 405 |
Is the Project Evaluable? | p. 405 |
Who Can Do This Work? | p. 407 |
Steps in Evaluation Research | p. 407 |
Problem Formulation | p. 408 |
Design of Instruments | p. 408 |
Research Design | p. 409 |
Data Collection | p. 410 |
Data Analysis | p. 410 |
Utilization | p. 411 |
What Works in Criminal Justice? | p. 412 |
Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising | p. 413 |
Obstacles to Evaluation Research | p. 415 |
Researchers and Host Agencies | p. 416 |
How to Write the Research Report | p. 418 |
Table of Random Numbers | p. 423 |
Statistics: An Addendum to Chapter 12 | p. 425 |
Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data | p. 425 |
Standard Deviations for Grouped Data | p. 427 |
Raw Score Approach | p. 428 |
Deviation Score Approach | p. 429 |
Calculation of Anova | p. 430 |
Regression Calculations | p. 431 |
A Test of Significance for Gamma | p. 432 |
Answers to Pop Quizzes in Chapter 12 | p. 433 |
Normal Curve Areas | p. 438 |
Distribution of Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | p. 443 |
Proposal Writing and Evaluation | p. 444 |
Proposal Writing | p. 444 |
Funding Agencies | p. 444 |
Grantsmanship | p. 444 |
Basic Elements of a Proposal | p. 445 |
NIJ Proposal Format and Content | p. 450 |
Evaluation of Research Proposals | p. 452 |
NIJ Evaluation of Proposals | p. 453 |
References | p. 454 |
Glossary | p. 490 |
Name Index | p. 495 |
Subject Index | p. 502 |
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