Research Methods In Criminal Justice And Criminology

by Hagan, Frank E.

• ISBN13: 9780205447398
• ISBN10: 0205447392
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

Classic in its field, this best-selling text teaches general research methods using standard and contemporary examples of both qualitative and quantitative research in criminal justice and criminology. The author uses criminological and criminal justice studies to illustrate research methods, so readers can become familiar with examples of research in the field as well as learn fundamental research skills.

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods: Theory and Method	1	(32)
Scientific Research in Criminal Justice	2	(1)
Common Sense and Nonsense	3	(2)
Why Study Research Methods in Criminal Justice?	5	(1)
The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice	6	(2)
The Probabilistic Nature of Science	8	(1)
Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry	8	(1)
Approaches to Theory and Method in Criminal Justice	9	(1)
Pure Versus Applied Research	10	(6)
Exhibit 1.1: The Paradigm Shift in Policing	11	(2)
Exhibit 1.2: The Project on Human Development	13	(2)
Exhibit 1.3: Crime Analysis: Applied Criminal Justice Research	15	(1)
Qualitative and Quantitative Research	16	(1)
Researchese: The Language of Research	17	(3)
Concepts	18	(1)
Operationalization	18	(1)
Variables	18	(1)
Dependent and Independent Variables	19	(1)
Theories/Hypotheses	20	(1)
Examples of the Research Process	20	(2)
Recidivism among Juvenile Offenders	21	(1)
General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal Justice	22	(1)
Problem Formulation: Selection of Research Problem	22	(3)
Exhibit 1.4: Feminist Perspectives and Research Methods	24	(1)
Problem Formulation: Specification of Research Problem	25	(1)
Summary	25	(7)
Exhibit 1.5: The World Wide Web (WWW)	27	(5)
Key Concepts	32	(1)
Review Questions	32	(1)
Useful Web Sites	32	(1)
Ethics in Criminal Justice Research	33	(43)
Ethical Horror Stories	34	(8)
Biomedical Examples	34	(2)
Social Science Examples	36	(1)
Exhibit 2.1: AIDS Research in Africa and Asia: Is It Ethical?	37	(4)
Researcher Fraud and Plagiarism	41	(1)
Exhibit 2.2: Legendary Research Scams	42	(1)
The Researcher's Role	42	(2)
Research Targets in Criminal Justice	44	(1)
Ethics and Professionalism	45	(1)
Ethics in Criminal Justice Research	46	(9)
History of Federal Regulation of Research	46	(3)
The Belmont Report	49	(1)
Institutional Review Boards	50	(1)
Research Activities Exempt from HHS Review	50	(5)
National Institute of Justice's Human Subject Protection Requirements	55	(1)
Confidentiality of Criminal Justice Research	55	(5)
Exhibit 2.3: Codes of Research Ethics of the ACJS and the ASC	57	(3)
Ethical Issues in Criminology / Criminal Justice Research	60	(4)
Avoid Research That May Harm Respondents	61	(1)
Honor Commitments to Respondents and Respect Reciprocity	62	(1)
Exercise Objectivity and Professional Integrity in Performing and Reporting Research	62	(1)
Protect Confidentiality and Privacy of Respondents	63	(1)
Ethical Problems	64	(8)
The Brajuha Case (Weinstein Decision)	66	(1)
The Ofshe Case	67	(1)
The Hutchinson Case	68	(3)
Additional Ethical Concerns	71	(1)
Avoiding Ethical Problems	72	(1)
Summary	72	(2)
Key Concepts	74	(1)
Review Questions	74	(1)
Useful Web Sites	74	(2)
Research Design: The Experimental Model and Its Variations	76	(39)
The Experimental Model	77	(1)
Research Design in a Nutshell	77	(1)
Causality	78	(2)
Resolution of the Causality Problem	78	(2)
Rival Causal Factors	80	(1)
Validity	81	(1)
Internal Factors: Variables Related to Internal Validity	81	(4)
History	81	(1)
Maturation	82	(1)
Testing	83	(1)
Instrumentation	83	(1)
Statistical Regression	83	(1)
Selection Bias	84	(1)
Experimental Mortality	84	(1)
Selection--Maturation Interaction	85	(1)
External Factors: Variables Related to External Validity	85	(2)
Testing Effects	85	(1)
Selection Bias	86	(1)
Reactivity or Awareness of Being Studied	86	(1)
Multiple-Treatment Interference	86	(1)
Related Rival Causal Factors	87	(2)
Hawthorne Effect	87	(1)
Halo Effect	87	(1)
Post Hoc Error	87	(1)
Placebo Effect	88	(1)
Experimental Designs	89	(1)
The Classic Experimental Design	89	(2)
Some Criminal Justice Examples of the Classic Experimental Design	91	(5)
Candid Camera	91	(1)
Scared Straight	91	(1)
Community Policing	92	(2)
Exhibit 3.1: The Kansas City Gun Experiment	94	(2)
Other Experimental Designs	96	(1)
Posttest-Only Control Group Design	96	(1)
Solomon Four-Group Design	96	(1)
Preexperimental Designs	97	(2)
One-Group Ex Post Facto Design	97	(1)
One-Group Before-After Design	98	(1)
Two-Group Ex Post Facto Design	99	(1)
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs	99	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	100	(5)
Exhibit 3.2: The Cycle of Violence and Victims of Child Abuse	101	(1)
Time-Series Designs	101	(3)
Multiple Interrupted Time-Series Designs	104	(1)
Counterbalanced Designs	104	(1)
Some Other Criminal Justice Examples of Variations of the Experimental Model	105	(5)
The Provo and Silverlake Experiments	105	(1)
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment	106	(1)
Exhibit 3.3: Evaluations of Shock Incarceration	107	(1)
The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment	108	(2)
The Experiment as a Data-Gathering Strategy	110	(2)
Advantages of Experiments	110	(1)
Disadvantages of Experiments	111	(1)
Summary	112	(1)
Key Concepts	113	(1)
Review Questions	113	(1)
Useful Web Sites	114	(1)
An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports	115	(24)
Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies	116	(1)
Social Surveys	117	(1)
Participant Observation	118	(1)
Life History and Case Studies	119	(1)
Unobtrusive Measures	119	(2)
Exhibit 4.1: Applied Research: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)	120	(1)
The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports	121	(1)
The Crime Index	122	(1)
Crime Rate	123	(1)
Cautions in the Use of UCR Data	124	(4)
Factors Affecting the UCR	124	(4)
Related UCR Issues	128	(2)
Exhibit 4.2: The Crime Dip	129	(1)
UCR Redesign	130	(6)
National Incident-Based Reporting System	130	(1)
Nibrs versus UCR	131	(1)
Exhibit 4.3: The National Incident-Based Reporting System (Nibrs)	132	(4)
Summary	136	(1)
Key Concepts	137	(1)
Review Questions	137	(1)
Useful Web Sites	138	(1)
Sampling and Survey Research: Questionnaires	139	(43)
Types of Sampling	140	(11)
Probability Samples	140	(6)
Nonprobability Samples	146	(4)
Exhibit 5.1: Crime Profiling	150	(1)
Sample Size	151	(1)
Survey Research	152	(2)
Some Guidelines for Questionnaire Construction	154	(6)
Questionnaire Wording	155	(4)
Pretest	159	(1)
Organization of the Questionnaire	160	(1)
Mail Surveys	160	(1)
Advantages of Mail Surveys	161	(1)
Disadvantages of Mail Surveys	162	(1)
Ways of Eliminating Disadvantages in Mail Surveys	163	(5)
Follow-up	163	(1)
Offering Remuneration	164	(1)
Attractive Format	165	(1)
Sponsorship and Endorsements	165	(1)
Personalization	166	(1)
Shortened Format	166	(1)
Good Timing	166	(2)
Self-Reported Measures of Crime	168	(1)
Some Problems with Self-Report Surveys	169	(2)
Strengths of Self-Report Surveys	171	(4)
Reliability	171	(1)
Validity	172	(1)
Use of Other Data	172	(1)
Use of Other Observers	173	(1)
Use of Polygraph	173	(1)
Known-Group Validation	173	(1)
Use of Lie Scales	173	(1)
Measures of Internal Consistency	174	(1)
Use of Interviews	174	(1)
Internet Surveys	175	(4)
Advantages of Internet Surveys	175	(1)
Disadvantages of Internet Surveys	175	(1)
Procedures in Internet Surveys	176	(3)
Summary	179	(1)
Key Concepts	180	(1)
Review Questions	181	(1)
Useful Web Sites	181	(1)
Survey Research: Interviews and Telephone Surveys	182	(37)
Types of Interviews	183	(2)
Advantages of Interviews	185	(1)
Disadvantages of Interviews	186	(1)
Interviewing Aids and Variations	186	(3)
Exhibit 6.1: Public Opinion Polls	187	(2)
General Procedures in Interviews	189	(1)
Training and Orientation Session	189	(1)
Arranging the Interview	189	(1)
Demeanor of Interviewer	190	(1)
Administration of the Structured Interview	190	(1)
Probing	191	(1)
The Exit	192	(1)
Recording the Interview	192	(1)
Telephone Surveys	193	(1)
Advantages and Prospects of Telephone Surveys	194	(1)
Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys	194	(1)
Computers in Survey Research	195	(1)
Random Digit Dialing	196	(2)
Techniques Employed in Telephone Surveys	198	(1)
Victim Surveys in Criminal Justice	199	(1)
National Crime Victimization Survey	200	(1)
Sampling	200	(1)
Panel Design	201	(1)
A Comparison of UCR, NCVS, and Self-Report Data	201	(3)
Some Problems in Victim Surveys	204	(3)
Cost of Large Samples	204	(1)
False Reports	204	(1)
Mistaken Reporting	205	(1)
Poor Memory	205	(1)
Telescoping	205	(1)
Sampling Bias	206	(1)
Overreporting and Underreporting	206	(1)
Interviewer Effects	206	(1)
Coding Unreliability and Mechanical Error	207	(1)
Problems Measuring Certain Crimes	207	(1)
Benefits of Victim Surveys	207	(1)
A Defense of Victim Surveys	208	(1)
Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys	208	(1)
Bounding	209	(1)
Reverse Record Checks	209	(1)
Victim Surveys: A Balanced View	209	(1)
Community Crime Victimization Survey Software	210	(1)
Redesign of the National Crime Victimization Survey	210	(5)
Exhibit 6.2: The Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey	211	(4)
Summary	215	(2)
Key Concepts	217	(1)
Review Questions	217	(1)
Useful Web Sites	218	(1)
Participant Observation and Case Studies	219	(28)
A Critique of Experiments and Surveys	220	(1)
Verbal Reports versus Behavior	220	(1)
A Defense of Quantitative Research	221	(1)
Participant Observation	222	(1)
Types of Participant Observation	223	(2)
Characteristics of Participant Observation	225	(3)
Objectivity in Research	225	(1)
``Going Native''	226	(2)
General Procedures in Participant Observation	228	(1)
Field Notes	228	(1)
Mnemonics	228	(1)
Caution in Use of Other Recording Methods	229	(1)
Tips on Participant Observation	229	(6)
Gaining Access	230	(2)
Gatekeepers	232	(1)
Announcement of Intentions	232	(1)
Sampling	232	(1)
Exhibit 7.1: American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crime	233	(1)
Reciprocity and Protection of Identity	234	(1)
Concern for Accuracy	235	(1)
Examples of Participant Observation	235	(3)
Exhibit 7.2: Islands in the Streets	237	(1)
Exhibit 7.3: This Thing of Darkness: A Participant Observation Study of Idaho Christian Patriots	238	(1)
Advantages of Participant Observation	238	(1)
Disadvantages of Participant Observation	239	(1)
Case Studies	240	(1)
Life History / Oral History	241	(1)
Some Examples of Case Studies	241	(1)
Journalistic Field Studies	242	(1)
Single-Subject Designs	242	(2)
Summary	244	(1)
Key Concepts	245	(1)
Review Questions	245	(1)
Useful Web Sites	246	(1)
Unobtrusive Measures, Secondary Analysis, and the Uses of Official Statistics	247	(41)
Major Types of Unobtrusive Methods	248	(1)
Physical Trace Analysis	249	(1)
Use of Available Data and Archives	250	(17)
Secondary Analysis	251	(1)
Personal Documents and Biographies	251	(3)
Examples of Secondary Analysis	254	(2)
Exhibit 8.1: Automated Pin Mapping: Applied Criminal Justice Research Using GIS for Crime Analysis	256	(2)
Exhibit 8.2: Street Gang Crime in Chicago	258	(2)
Limitations of Official Data	260	(1)
Measuring Hidden Populations	261	(1)
Historical and Archival Data	262	(1)
Content Analysis	262	(3)
Content Analysis by Computer	265	(1)
Meta-Analysis	265	(2)
Sources of Existing Data	267	(5)
Exhibit 8.3: Applied Criminal Justice Research: Hotspot Analysis	268	(3)
Exhibit 8.4: X-Files at the Federal Bureau of Investigation	271	(1)
Observation	272	(6)
Exhibit 8.5: National Archive of Criminal Justice Data	273	(5)
Disguised Observation	278	(3)
Simulations	281	(2)
Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures	283	(1)
Disadvantages of Unobtrusive Measures	284	(1)
Summary	285	(1)
Key Concepts	286	(1)
Review Questions	286	(1)
Useful Web Sites	286	(2)
Validity, Reliability, and Triangulated Strategies	288	(18)
Error in Research	288	(2)
Reasons for Lack of Validation Studies in Criminal Justice	290	(2)
Ways of Determining Validity	292	(6)
Face Validity	292	(1)
Content Validity	293	(1)
Construct Validity	293	(1)
Pragmatic Validity	294	(1)
Convergent-Discriminant Validation / Triangulation	295	(3)
Reliability	298	(2)
Test-Retest	298	(1)
Multiple Forms	299	(1)
Split-Half Technique	299	(1)
Adam (Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program)	300	(1)
Other Examples of Research Validation	300	(3)
Exhibit 9.1: ADAM	301	(2)
Summary	303	(1)
Key Concepts	304	(1)
Review Questions	304	(1)
Useful Web Sites	304	(2)
Scaling and Index Construction	306	(29)
Levels of Measurement	306	(3)
Scaling Procedures	309	(1)
Arbitrary Scales	310	(1)
The Uniform Crime Report as an Arbitrary Scale	311	(1)
Attitude Scales	312	(9)
Thurstone Scales	312	(2)
Likert Scales	314	(3)
Guttman Scales	317	(4)
Other Scaling Procedures	321	(4)
Q Sort	321	(1)
Semantic Differential	321	(1)
Other Variations	322	(3)
Crime Seriousness Scales	325	(2)
Sellin-Wolfgang Index	325	(1)
Types of Crime Seriousness Scales	326	(1)
Prediction Scales	327	(4)
The Salient Factor Score	328	(1)
Greenwood's ``Rand Seven-Factor Index''	329	(1)
Career Criminal Programs	330	(1)
Advantages of Scales	331	(1)
Disadvantages of Scales	331	(1)
Summary	332	(1)
Key Concepts	333	(1)
Review Questions	334	(1)
Useful Web Sites	334	(1)
Policy Analysis and Evaluation Research	335	(26)
Policy Analysis	336	(1)
Evaluation Research	337	(2)
Policy Experiments	338	(1)
Policy Analysis: The Case of the National Institute of Justice Research Program	339	(2)
NIJ Mission Statement	339	(1)
NIJ Research Priorities	340	(1)
A Systems Model of Evaluation Research	341	(2)
Types of Evaluation Research	343	(3)
Will the Findings Be Used?	344	(1)
Is the Project Evaluable?	344	(2)
Who Can Do This Work?	346	(1)
Steps in Evaluation Research	346	(5)
Problem Formulation	347	(1)
Design of Instruments	347	(1)
Research Design	348	(1)
Data Collection	349	(1)
Data Analysis	350	(1)
Utilization	350	(1)
What Works in Criminal Justice?	351	(4)
The Campbell Collaboration (C2)	352	(1)
Exhibit 11.1: Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising	353	(2)
Obstacles to Evaluation Research	355	(3)
Researchers and Host Agencies	358	(1)
Summary	359	(1)
Key Concepts	359	(1)
Review Questions	360	(1)
Useful Web Sites	360	(1)
Data Management: Coding, Tabulation, and Simple Data Presentation	361	(37)
Variables List	362	(1)
Computers	363	(1)
Data Management	364	(6)
Editing	364	(1)
Coding	365	(3)
Coder Monitoring	368	(1)
Keyboard Entry	369	(1)
Data Verification	370	(1)
Simple Data Presentation	370	(4)
Rates	372	(1)
Proportions	372	(1)
Percentages	373	(1)
Ratios	373	(1)
The Frequency Distribution	374	(1)
Graphic Presentations	375	(7)
Pie Charts	376	(1)
Bar Graphs	376	(1)
Frequency Polygons (Line Charts)	377	(2)
Using SPSS for Graphs	379	(1)
Crime Clocks	379	(3)
Table Reading	382	(1)
Why Bother with Tables?	383	(1)
What to Look for in a Table	383	(1)
Steps in Reading a Table	383	(4)
Summary of Table 12.3	386	(1)
How to Construct Tables	387	(1)
Presentation of Complex Data	387	(2)
General Rules for Percentaging a Table	389	(3)
Improper Percentaging	391	(1)
Elaboration	392	(2)
Lying with Statistics	394	(1)
Summary	395	(1)
Key Concepts	396	(1)
Review Questions	397	(1)
Useful Web Sites	397	(1)
Data Analysis: A User's Guide to Statistics	398	(44)
Why Study Statistics?	399	(1)
Using Spss for Statistics	400	(1)
Types of Statistics	401	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency for a Simple Distribution	401	(3)
Mode	401	(1)
Median	402	(1)
Mean	402	(2)
Measures of Dispersion	404	(5)
Range	404	(2)
Standard Deviation (σ)	406	(3)
Standard Deviation Units (Z Scores)	409	(2)
Chi-Square (X2)	411	(3)
Calculation of Chi-Square	412	(1)
Cautions	413	(1)
Chi-Square-Based Measures of Association	414	(1)
Phi Coefficient (Φ) and Phi-Square (Φ2)	414	(1)
Contingency Coefficient (C)	415	(1)
Cramer's V	415	(1)
Nature and Types of Statistics	415	(3)
Nonparametric Statistics	415	(1)
Null Hypothesis	416	(1)
Tests of Significance	417	(1)
The t Test (Difference of Means Test)	418	(2)
Types of t Tests	418	(2)
Anova (Analysis of Variance)	420	(3)
Calculation of Anova	421	(2)
Other Measures of Relationship	423	(1)
The Concept of Relationship	423	(1)
Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r)	424	(3)
Interpretation of Pearson's r	424	(1)
Calculation of Pearson's r	425	(1)
Statistical Significance of Pearson's r	426	(1)
Regression	427	(1)
Ordinal Level Measures of Relationship	428	(5)
Spearman's Rho (rs)	428	(2)
Interpretation of Rho	430	(1)
Gamma	430	(3)
Multivariate Analysis	433	(2)
Partial Correlation	433	(1)
Multiple Correlation and Regression	434	(1)
Statistical Software	435	(1)
Caveat Emptor	436	(1)
The Ecological Fallacy	437	(1)
Summary	438	(2)
Key Concepts	440	(1)
Review Questions	440	(1)
Useful Web Sites	440	(2)
APPENDIX A How to Write the Research Report	442	(5)
APPENDIX B Table of Random Numbers	447	(2)
APPENDIX C Statistics: An Addendum to Chapter 13	449	(8)
Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data	449	(3)
Standard Deviations for Grouped Data	452	(2)
Raw Score Approach	452	(1)
Deviation Score Approach	453	(1)
Calculation of Anova	454	(1)
Regression Calculations	455	(1)
A Test of Significance for Gamma	456	(1)
APPENDIX D Answers to Pop Quizzes in Chapter 13	457	(5)
APPENDIX E Normal Curve Areas	462	(5)
APPENDIX F Distribution of Chi-Square (X2)	467	(1)
APPENDIX G Proposal Writing and Evaluation	468	(11)
Proposal Writing	468	(6)
Funding Agencies	468	(1)
Grantsmanship	468	(1)
Basic Elements of a Proposal	469	(5)
NIJ Proposal Format and Content	474	(2)
Selection Criteria	475	(1)
Evaluation of Research Proposals	476	(3)
NIJ Evaluation of Proposals	477	(2)
References	479	(40)
Glossary	519	(6)
Name Index	525	(6)
Subject Index	531