Research Methods (with InfoTrac)

by McBurney, Donald H.; White, Theresa L.

• ISBN13: 9780534524180
• ISBN10: 0534524184
• Edition: 6th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-07-15
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

1. Psychology and Science. 2. Developing a Research Question. 3. Ethics in Research. 4. Writing in Psychology. 5. Variables. 6. Tabular and Graphical Descriptions of Data. 7. Validity. 8. Control. 9. Nonexperimental Research, Part 1: Observational, Archival, and Case-Study Research. 10. Nonexperimental Research Part 2: Survey Research. 11. True Experiments, Part 1: Single Factor Designs. 12. True Experiments, Part 2: Factorial Designs. 13. Single-Subject Experiments. 14. Quasi Experiments. 15. Epilogue: Biases and Limitations of Experimental Psychology. Appendix A: Review of Statistics. Appendix B: Random-Number Table. Appendix C: Population Data Set. Appendix D: Suggested Answers to "Reading Between the Lines". Appendix E: Key for Identifying Appropriate Graphs and Statistics.

Table of Contents

1 Psychology and Science	1	(29)
Ways of Knowing about Behavior	1	(4)
Nonempirical Methods	2	(1)
Empirical Methods	3	(2)
What Is Science?	5	(4)
Characteristics of Science	6	(3)
The Relation Between Science and Nonscience	9	(1)
Working Assumptions of Science	9	(3)
The Reality of the World	9	(1)
Rationality	10	(1)
Regularity	10	(1)
Discoverability	11	(1)
Causality	11	(1)
The Goals of Science	12	(10)
The Discovery of Regularities	12	(4)
The Development of Theories	16	(2)
The Role of Theories	18	(2)
Hypotheses in Science	20	(1)
The Nature of Scientific Progress	20	(1)
A Note on Psychology and Science	21	(1)
Summary	22	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	23	(1)
A Case in Point	24	(3)
Reading Between the Lines	27	(2)
Exercises	29	(1)
2 Developing a Research Question	30	(20)
Choice of a Problem	30	(1)
The Literature Review	31	(1)
Using the Internet	32	(6)
Guidelines for Evaluating Information from the Internet	33	(1)
Search Engines	34	(1)
Government and Organizational Web Sites	34	(1)
Some Individual Web Sites for Psychology	35	(1)
Proprietary Web Sites	35	(2)
Email	37	(1)
Psychology Databases	38	(1)
An Extended Internet Search Example: Waist-Hip Ratio and Attractiveness	38	(6)
Inter-Library Loan	43	(1)
After You Locate the Important Articles	44	(1)
The Research Question	45	(1)
The Proposal	45	(1)
Summary	46	(1)
Exercises	47	(3)
3 Ethics in Research	50	(26)
The APA Ethics Code	59	(1)
Commentary on Responsibility	51	(1)
Commentary on Protection from Harm	52	(2)
Commentary on Informed Consent	54	(1)
Commentary on Privacy and Freedom from Coercion	54	(2)
Commentary on Deception	56	(1)
Commentary on Debriefing	57	(2)
Fraud in Research	59	(2)
Role of the Research Participant	60	(1)
Ethics and Animal Experimentation	61	(5)
Animal Rights and Animal Welfare	62	(1)
Speciesism?	62	(2)
The Case of the Silver Spring Monkeys	64	(2)
Nuts and Bolts	66	(1)
Summary	67	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	68	(1)
A Case in Point	68	(5)
Reading Between the Lines	73	(1)
Exercises	74	(2)
4 Writing in Psychology	76	(42)
The Written Report	77	(25)
General	77	(2)
Avoiding Sexism and Ethnic Bias in Writing	79	(1)
The Parts of a Paper	80	(3)
Documenting Your Paper	83	(4)
Steps in the Publication Process	87	(15)
Oral Presentations	102	(1)
Poster Presentations	103	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	104	(5)
Summary	109	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	110	(1)
A Case in Point	110	(5)
Reading Between the Lines	115	(2)
Exercises	117	(1)
5 Variables	118	(22)
Types of Variables	119	(3)
Dependent and Independent Variables	119	(1)
Confounded Variables	120	(1)
Quantitative and Categorical Variables	121	(1)
Continuous and Discrete Variables	121	(1)
Measurement	122	(6)
What Is Measurement?	122	(1)
Types of Measurement Scales	123	(2)
Comparison of the Scales	125	(2)
Measurement and Statistics?	127	(1)
Reliability and Validity of Measurements	128	(3)
Variability and Error	128	(1)
Validity of Measurements	129	(2)
Nuts and Bolts	131	(2)
Summary	133	(2)
Suggestions for Further Reading	135	(1)
A Case in Point	135	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	135	(2)
Exercises	137	(3)
6 Tabular and Graphical Description of Data	140	(29)
Tables and Graphs of Frequency Data of One Variable	141	(4)
Frequency Tables	141	(1)
Frequency Distributions	142	(2)
Cumulative Frequency Distributions	144	(1)
Percentiles	144	(1)
Tables and Graphs That Show the Relationship Between Two Variables	145	(4)
Scattergrams	146	(1)
Tables with One Independent and One Dependent Variable	147	(1)
Graphs of Functions (Line Graphs)	148	(1)
Bar Graphs	148	(1)
Relation Between Frequency Distributions and Other Graphs	149	(3)
Time-Series Graphs	152	(1)
Indicating Variability of the Data in a Graph	153	(1)
Preparing Data for Analysis	154	(7)
Data Reduction	155	(1)
The Coding Guide	156	(1)
Checking for Invalid Data, Missing Data, and Outliers	157	(3)
Proceeding with the Analysis	160	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	161	(2)
Summary	163	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	164	(1)
A Case in Point	164	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	165	(3)
Exercises	168	(1)
7 Validity	169	(20)
Types of Validity	169	(4)
Internal Validity	170	(1)
Construct Validity	171	(1)
External Validity	172	(1)
Statistical Validity	173	(1)
Threats to Validity	173	(6)
Threats to Internal Validity	173	(3)
Threats to Construct Validity	176	(1)
Threats to External Validity	177	(2)
Threats to Statistical Validity	179	(1)
Summary Note on Validity	179	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	179	(3)
Summary	182	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	183	(1)
A Case in Point	183	(2)
Reading Between the Lines	185	(1)
Exercises	186	(3)
8 Control	189	(25)
The Concept of Control	189	(3)
Control Provides a Standard of Comparison	190	(1)
Control Reduces Variability	191	(1)
General Strategies	192	(2)
Control in the Laboratory	192	(1)
The Research Setting as a Preparation	193	(1)
Instrumentation of the Response as Control	194	(1)
Specific Strategies	194	(9)
Subject as Own Control (Within-Subjects Control)	194	(2)
Random Assignment	196	(2)
Matching	198	(1)
Building Nuisance Variables into the Experiment	199	(2)
Statistical Control	201	(2)
Replication, Replication	203	(2)
Experimental Design as Problem Solving	205	(1)
The Elegant Experiment	205	(1)
How to Use the Rest of This Book	206	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	206	(3)
Summary	209	(2)
Suggestion for Further Reading	211	(1)
A Case in Point	211	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	212	(1)
Exercise	213	(1)
9 Nonexperimental Research, Part 1: Observational, Archival, and Case-Study Research	214	(24)
The Hermeneutic Approach	216	(1)
Observational Research	216	(7)
Naturalistic Observation	217	(4)
Participant-Observer Research	221	(2)
Archival Research	223	(1)
Case Studies	224	(1)
Theory Development and Testing in Observational and Archival Research	225	(2)
Nuts and Bolts	227	(4)
Summary	231	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	232	(1)
A Case in Point	232	(3)
Reading Between the Lines	235	(2)
Exercises	237	(1)
10 Nonexperimental Research, Part 2: Survey Research	238	(27)
How a Questionnaire Is Designed	238	(1)
Determine the Purpose of the Questionnaire	239	(1)
Determine the Types of Questions	239	(5)
Write the Items	240	(4)
Determine How the Data Will Be Analyzed	244	(1)
Administering the Questionnaire	244	(3)
Determine the Method of Administration	244	(2)
The Problem of Response Rate	246	(1)
Sampling	247	(7)
Types of Samples	247	(1)
Probability Samples and Random Selection	248	(5)
Summary of Sampling Procedures	253	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	254	(2)
Summary	256	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	256	(1)
A Case in Point	257	(2)
Reading Between the Lines	259	(1)
Exercises	260	(5)
11 True Experiments, Part 1: Single-Factor Designs	265	(21)
True Experiments	265	(1)
Factors, Levels, Conditions, and Treatments	266	(1)
Some Designs to Avoid	266	(3)
The One-Group Posttest-Only Design	267	(1)
The Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Control Groups	267	(1)
The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	268	(1)
The Basic Elements of a Valid Experimental Design	269	(1)
Within-Subjects Designs	270	(7)
Controlling for Order and Sequence Effects	270	(4)
Two Conditions, Tested Within Subjects	274	(1)
Multiple Conditions, Tested Within Subjects	275	(2)
Between-Subjects Designs	277	(2)
Two Conditions, Tested Between Subjects	277	(1)
Multiple Conditions, Tested Between Subjects	277	(2)
Summary	279	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	280	(1)
A Case in Point	280	(2)
Reading Between the Lines	282	(2)
Exercises	284	(2)
12 True Experiments, Part 2: Factorial Designs	286	(23)
A Simple Factorial Design	288	(1)
Main Effects	289	(1)
Interactions	290	(4)
Interactions When There Is No Main Effect	291	(3)
Types of Interactions	294	(1)
Within-Subjects, Between-Subjects, and Mixed Designs	294	(6)
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs	299	(1)
Control in Within-Subjects Factorial Experiments	299	(1)
Some Representative Factorial Designs	300	(2)
Factorial, Within-Subjects	300	(1)
Factorial, Between-Subjects	301	(1)
A Mixed Factorial Design	301	(1)
Summary	302	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	303	(1)
A Case in Point	303	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	304	(2)
Exercises	306	(3)
13 Single-Participant Experiments	309	(21)
Advantages of the Single-Participant Approach	310	(3)
Focusing on Individual Performance	311	(1)
Focusing on Big Effects	312	(1)
Avoiding Ethical and Practical Problems	313	(1)
Flexibility in Design	313	(1)
Disadvantages of the Single-Participant Approach	313	(1)
Basic Control Strategies in Single-Participant Research	314	(10)
Obtaining a Stable Baseline	314	(1)
Comparison (AB Design)	315	(1)
Withdrawal of Treatment (ABA Design)	315	(1)
Repeating Treatments (ABAB Design)	315	(3)
Changing Only One Variable at a Time	318	(1)
Using Multiple Baselines	319	(2)
Employing a Changing Criterion	321	(1)
Two Examples from Psychophysics	321	(3)
Summary	324	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	325	(1)
A Case in Point	326	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	326	(2)
Exercises	328	(2)
14 Quasi Experiments	330	(31)
The Principal Difference Between Quasi Experiments and True Experiments	330	(3)
Other Features of Quasi Experiments	332	(1)
Which Is the Best Research Method?	332	(1)
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs	333	(3)
Mixed Factorial Design with One Nonmanipulated Variable	336	(1)
Designs Without Control Groups	336	(5)
Interrupted Time-Series Designs	337	(3)
Repeated-Treatment Designs	340	(1)
Designs to Test Developmental Changes	341	(4)
Program Evaluation	345	(5)
Sources of Resistance to Program Evaluations	346	(1)
Steps in Planning an Evaluation	347	(2)
Two Examples of Program Evaluation	349	(1)
Nuts and Bolts	350	(3)
Summary	353	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	354	(1)
A Case in Point	355	(2)
Reading Between the Lines	357	(2)
Exercises	359	(2)
Epilogue Biases and Limitations of Experimental Psychology	361	(12)
Biases	362	(3)
Science as Conservative	362	(2)
Science as Liberal	364	(1)
Limitations of Science	365	(3)
Essential Limitations	366	(2)
Practical Limitations	368	(1)
The Responsibilities of the Scientist	368	(1)
Summary Note on Biases and Limitations of Science	369	(1)
Summary	370	(1)
Suggestions for Further Reading	371	(1)
Reading Between the Lines	371	(1)
Exercises	372	(1)
Appendix A Review of Statistics	373	(33)
Some Basic Terms	373	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	374	(11)
Measures of Central Tendency	374	(3)
Measures of Variability	377	(3)
Correlation and Regression	380	(5)
Inferential Statistics	385	(21)
Sampling Distributions	385	(2)
Testing Hypotheses	387	(2)
Dealing with Uncertainty in Hypothesis Testing	389	(3)
The Significance of Significance	392	(1)
Effect Size	393	(1)
Analysis of Variance	394
Exercises 401
Appendix B Random-Number Table	406	(2)
Appendix C Population Data Set	408	(2)
Appendix D Suggested Answers to "Reading Between the Lines"	410	(7)
Appendix E Key for Identifying Appropriate Graphs and Statistics	417	(4)
References	421	(8)
Indexes	429