Research Methods and Statistics in Criminal Justice : An Introduction

by Fitzgerald,Jack

• ISBN13: 9780534534370
• ISBN10: 0534534376
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-08-23
• Publisher: Cengage Learning

Summary

Formerly a Nelson Hall title, this comprehensive introduction to the basics of criminal justice research introduces simple research methodologies and gradually advances to more complicated ones. The book describes elementary descriptive and inferential statistics, demonstrates research techniques, and examines the various scientific perspectives used in research today. This approach encourages readers to think critically about the research they will encounter in their studies as well as think about ways they can conduct their own research.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
Research and Criminal Justice	1	(29)
Research in Everyday Life	3	(1)
Criminal Investigation and Scientific Research	4	(1)
Basic and Applied Research	5	(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Research	6	(6)
Evaluation Research	12	(3)
Prediction Research	15	(3)
In-House, Hired-Hand, and Third-Party Research	18	(3)
Research in Criminal Justice: An Illustration	21	(5)
Review Questions	26	(1)
Exercises	27	(1)
Notes	28	(2)
Perspectives and Research	30	(32)
What Is a Perspective?	30	(4)
Different Kinds of Language	34	(2)
Principles of a Scientific Perspective	36	(6)
Empiricism	36	(1)
Objectivity	37	(2)
Tentativeness	39	(1)
Skepticism	40	(1)
Ethical Neutrality	40	(1)
Parsimony	40	(1)
Determinism	40	(1)
Publication	41	(1)
Replication	42	(1)
Social Science as Science	42	(2)
An Example of a Social Science Perspective: Symbolic Interactionism	44	(2)
Other Perspectives in Criminal Justice Studies	46	(1)
Theory	47	(1)
Scope	47	(1)
Integration	47	(1)
Verification	47	(1)
Relationships Among Theory, Research, and Methodology	48	(1)
Research Ethics	48	(6)
Anonymity and Confidentiality	49	(1)
Risk and Voluntary Informed Consent	50	(1)
Deception in Research	51	(1)
Sharing Results and Benefits with Research Participants	51	(1)
Research Ethics and Other Standards of Fairness	52	(1)
Responsibility to Scientific Community	53	(1)
Current Critiques of the Scientific Perspective	54	(4)
Review Questions	58	(1)
Exercises	58	(1)
Notes	59	(3)
An Introduction to Research Methodology and Design	62	(31)
Choosing a Research Topic	63	(1)
Identifying Units of Analysis	64	(1)
Defining Concepts and Variables	65	(1)
Types of Definitions	65	(1)
Variables	66	(1)
Validity, Reliability, and Precision in Categorizations and Measurements	66	(2)
Validity	67	(1)
Reliability	67	(1)
Precision	68	(1)
Choosing a Research Design	68	(20)
Exploratory Research	69	(1)
Descriptive Research	69	(4)
Explantatory Research	73	(6)
Internal and External Threats to the Validity of Research Results	79	(9)
Triangulation	88	(1)
A Final Note About the Research Process	88	(2)
Review Questions	90	(1)
Exercises	90	(1)
Notes	91	(2)
Sampling	93	(15)
Probability Sampling	94	(7)
Random Sampling	96	(1)
Stratified Random Sampling and Proportionate Sampling	97	(1)
Disproportionate Sampling	97	(2)
Systematic Sampling	99	(1)
Cluster Sampling	99	(1)
Multistage Sampling	100	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	101	(4)
Sample Size	105	(1)
Determining the Population to Be Sampled	105	(1)
Review Questions	106	(1)
Exercises	106	(1)
Notes	107	(1)
Research Tools and Techniques: Survey Research Through Questionnaires and Interviews	108	(18)
Questionnaires	108	(10)
Types of Questions	109	(1)
Constructing Questionnnaires	110	(4)
Pretesting Questionnaires	114	(1)
Precoding Questionnaires	114	(1)
A Sample Questionnaire	115	(2)
Increasing Response Rates	117	(1)
Interviews	118	(5)
Telephone Surveys	121	(1)
Internet Surveys	122	(1)
Review Questions	123	(1)
Exercises	123	(2)
Notes	125	(1)
Research Tools and Techniques: Document Research, Physical Evidence, Observation, and Experimentation	126	(18)
Document Research	127	(4)
Content Analysis	130	(1)
Observation	131	(4)
Recording and Coding	134	(1)
Accuracy of Observations	135	(1)
Physical Evidence	135	(1)
Experiments	136	(3)
Entering the Field	139	(2)
Review Questions	141	(1)
Exercises	141	(1)
Notes	142	(2)
An Introduction to Descriptive Statistics	144	(33)
Measurement and Scales	145	(3)
Continuous and Discrete Variables	145	(1)
Levels of Measurement	146	(2)
Describing the Data	148	(6)
Raw Numbers	149	(1)
Percentages	150	(2)
Rates	152	(1)
Frequency Distributions	153	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency	154	(2)
The Mean	155	(1)
The Median	156	(1)
The Mode	156	(1)
Selecting Measures of Central Tendency	156	(3)
Measures of Dispersion	159	(4)
Range	159	(1)
Average Deviation	159	(1)
Standard Deviation	160	(3)
Indicators of Location in a Distribution	163	(4)
Distributions: Symmetrical and Otherwise	167	(7)
Unimodal and Multimodal Distributions	167	(3)
The Normal Distribution and Standard Scores	170	(4)
Review Questions	174	(1)
Exercises	175	(1)
Notes	176	(1)
Descriptive Statistics: Examining Relationships Between Two or More Variables Through Cross-Tabulation	177	(22)
Comparing Frequency Distributions	177	(2)
Fundamentals of Cross-Tabulation	179	(7)
Constructing a Cross-Tabulation	179	(3)
Collapsing Categories	182	(2)
Using Percentages in Cross-Tabulation	184	(2)
Elaboration Analysis	186	(10)
Explanation	189	(1)
Interpretation	189	(1)
Specification	190	(1)
No Apparent Relationship in the Zero-Order Table	190	(1)
Some Examples of Elaboration Analysis	190	(6)
Review Questions	196	(1)
Exercises	197	(1)
Notes	198	(1)
Descriptive Statistics: Measuring Relationships Between Two or More Variables Through Regression and Correlation Analysis	199	(17)
Scattergrams	200	(2)
Linear and Nonlinear Relationships	201	(1)
Regression Analysis	202	(5)
Correlation Analysis	207	(6)
Multiple and Partial Correlation	211	(2)
Correlation and Cross-Tabulation	213	(1)
Diagnoals	213	(1)
Other Statistical Measures of Association	214	(1)
Review Questions	215	(1)
Exercises	215	(1)
Notes	215	(1)
An Introduction to Inferential Statistics and Parameter Estimation	216	(22)
Determining Probabilities Empirically and Mathematically	219	(2)
Sampling Distributions and Sampling Error	221	(7)
The Binomial Distribution	223	(5)
Sampling Distributions for Other Sample Statistics	228	(1)
A Few Words About Nonparametric Statistics	229	(1)
Point and Interval Estimation	230	(6)
Confidence Intervals and Confidence Limits	230	(6)
Review Questions	236	(1)
Exercises	236	(1)
Note	237	(1)
Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing	238	(20)
Testing Hypotheses	238	(4)
Type I and Type II Error	239	(1)
Significance Level	240	(1)
One- and Two-Tailed Tests	241	(1)
Difference Between Means Test (Student's t)	242	(4)
Analysis of Variance (One Way)	246	(5)
Assessing Relationships Between Variables in Tables	251	(2)
Chi Square	251	(2)
Significance Tests for the Correlation Coefficient	253	(1)
Some Final Cautions	253	(1)
Review Questions	254	(1)
Exercises	255	(2)
Notes	257	(1)
Common Errors in Presenting and Interpreting Research Findings	258	(14)
The Trappings of Science	259	(2)
Scientific Costumes and Props	259	(1)
Quoting or Relying on Authorities	259	(1)
Using Technical Vocabulary	260	(1)
The Many Uses and Misuses of Numbers	261	(2)
Graphs: Their Uses and Misuses	263	(4)
Bar Graphs	263	(1)
Pie Graphs	263	(1)
Pictographs	263	(1)
Hazards in Interpreting Graphs	263	(4)
Correlation and Causation	267	(1)
Hypothesis Testing and Probabilities	268	(2)
Review Questions	270	(1)
Exercises	270	(1)
Note	271	(1)
Preparing and Reading Research Reports	272	(21)
The Title	273	(1)
Acknowledging Sources of Support	273	(1)
The Abstract	273	(1)
The Introduction	274	(1)
The Literature Review	275	(7)
Initiating the Literature Review	277	(1)
Completing the Literature Review	278	(1)
Referencing	279	(3)
Methods	282	(3)
Presentation and Analysis of Data	285	(3)
The Conclusion	288	(2)
The Bibliography or List of References	290	(1)
Appendices	291	(1)
A Final Note on Research Reports	291	(1)
Review Questions	291	(1)
Exercises	292	(1)
Note	292	(1)
Computers in Criminal Justice Research	293	(9)
Components of the Computer	294	(1)
Preparing Data for Computer Analysis	295	(2)
Current Computer Applications in Criminal Justice	297	(2)
Limitations of Computers	299	(1)
The Internet and Scientific Research	300	(1)
Review Questions	301	(1)
Exercises	301	(1)
Notes	301	(1)
Conclusions	302	(5)
Appendix A Table of Random Numbers	307	(3)
Appendix B Areas Under the Normal Curve	310	(6)
Appendix C Student's t Distributions Table	316	(2)
Appendix D F Distribution Tables	318	(5)
Appendix E Chi Square Table	323	(3)
Appendix F Excerpts from the Code of Ethics of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences	326	(8)
Glossary	334	(15)
Index	349