Research in Psychology: Methods and Design, 3rd Edition

by C. James Goodwin (Wheeling Jesuit Univ.)

• ISBN13: 9780471398615
• ISBN10: 0471398616
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-01-01
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

Thoroughly revised for increased clarity, this experimental psychology text focuses on experimental methodology and the scientific way of thinking. It provides comprehensive information on current research methods, yet remains readable and engaging. Specifically, topics include data handling, idea generation, experimentation, and research design and methods. Includes sections on estimating subject needs, and survey information on the use of animals in research.

Table of Contents

Scientific Thinking in Psychology	1	(32)
Why Take This Course?	2	(3)
Ways of Knowing	5	(4)
Tenacity	5	(1)
Authority	6	(1)
Discourse and Logic	6	(1)
Experience	7	(1)
The Ways of Knowing and Science	8	(1)
Attributes of Scientific Thinking in Psychology	9	(3)
Determinism	9	(1)
Objectivity	10	(1)
Data-Driven	11	(1)
Origins---A Taste of Introspection	12	(2)
Empirical Questions	14	(1)
Psychological Science and Pseudoscience	14	(3)
Recognizing Pseudoscience	15	(1)
Associates with True Science	16	(1)
Classic Studies---Disproving Phrenology	17	(5)
Relies on Anecdotal Evidence	20	(1)
Sidesteps Disproof	21	(1)
Reduces Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts	22	(1)
The Goals of Research in Psychology	22	(2)
Describing Behavior	23	(1)
Predicting Behavior	23	(1)
Explaining Behavior	23	(1)
Controlling Behavior	24	(1)
A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part I)	24	(9)
Eleanor Gibson	25	(1)
B. F. Skinner	26	(7)
Ethics in Psychological Research	33	(36)
Classic Studies---Scaring Little Albert	34	(2)
Developing the APA Code of Ethics	36	(2)
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans	38	(9)
Planning the Study	39	(4)
Ensuring That Participants Are Volunteers	43	(4)
Ethics---Historical Problems with Informed Consent	47	(7)
Treating Participants Well	51	(3)
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals	54	(2)
The Issue of Animal Rights	55	(1)
Using Animals in Psychological Research	55	(1)
Origins---Antivivisection and the APA	56	(4)
The APA Code for Animal Research	59	(1)
Justifying the Study	59	(1)
Caring for the Animals	59	(1)
Using Animals for Educational Purposes	60	(1)
Scientific Fraud	60	(9)
Data Falsification	61	(8)
Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology	69	(36)
Varieties of Psychological Research	70	(6)
Basic versus Applied Research	70	(2)
The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research	72	(3)
Quantitative versus Qualitative Research	75	(1)
Ethics---A Matter of Privacy	76	(1)
Asking Empirical Questions	77	(2)
Operational Definitions	77	(2)
Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity	79	(1)
Developing Research from Theory	80	(1)
Origins---Serendipity and Edge Detectors	81	(8)
The Nature of Theory	82	(2)
The Relationship between Theory and Data	84	(3)
Attributes of Good Theories	87	(1)
Falsification	87	(1)
Parsimony	88	(1)
Classic Studies---Falsification and Der Kluge Hans	89	(2)
Developing Research from Other Research	91	(3)
Research Teams and the ``What's Next?'' Question	92	(1)
Replication and Extension	93	(1)
Creative Thinking in Science	94	(2)
Reviewing the Literature	96	(9)
Computerized Database Searches	97	(1)
Search Tips	97	(8)
Measurement, Sampling, and Data Analysis	105	(42)
What to Measure---Varieties of Behavior	106	(4)
Developing Measures from Constructs	107	(3)
Evaluating Measures	110	(1)
Origins---Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation	111	(5)
Reliability	112	(2)
Validity	114	(1)
Reliability and Validity	115	(1)
Scales of Measurement	116	(3)
Nominal Scales	116	(1)
Ordinal Scales	117	(1)
Interval Scales	118	(1)
Classic Studies---Measuring Somatotypes: When 7-1-1 Met 1-1-7	119	(2)
Ratio Scales	120	(1)
Who to Measure---Sampling	121	(5)
Probability Sampling	121	(1)
Random Sampling	122	(2)
Stratified Sampling	124	(1)
Cluster Sampling	124	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	125	(1)
Convenience Sampling	125	(1)
Statistical Analysis	126	(8)
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics	127	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	127	(7)
Ethics---Lying with Statistics	134	(13)
Inferential Statistics	135	(1)
Hypothesis Testing	136	(2)
Type I and Type II Errors	138	(1)
Inferential Analysis	139	(1)
Power and Effect Size	140	(7)
Introduction to Experimental Research	147	(32)
Essential Features of Experimental Research	149	(4)
Establishing Independent Variables	149	(1)
Varieties of Independent Variables	150	(1)
Control Groups	150	(1)
Controlling Extraneous Variables	151	(1)
Measuring Dependent Variables	152	(1)
Manipulated versus Subject Variables	153	(4)
Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables	155	(2)
Classic Studies---Bobo Dolls and Aggression	157	(2)
The Validity of Experimental Research	159	(2)
Statistical Conclusion Validity	159	(1)
Construct Validity	159	(1)
External Validity	160	(1)
Other Populations	160	(1)
Ethics---Recruiting Participants: Everyone's in the Pool	161	(3)
Other Environments	163	(1)
Other Times	164	(1)
Internal Validity	164	(1)
Threats to Internal Validity	164	(6)
Pre-Post Studies	165	(1)
History and Maturation	166	(1)
Regression	166	(2)
Testing and Instrumentation	168	(1)
Evaluating Pretests---The Solomon Design	168	(1)
Participant Problems	169	(1)
Subject Selection Effects	169	(1)
Classic Studies---Selection Problems and Executive Monkeys	170	(9)
Attrition	171	(8)
Control Problems in Experimental Research	179	(34)
Between-Subjects Designs	180	(2)
The Problem of Creating Equivalent Groups	182	(5)
Random Assignment	182	(1)
Matching	183	(4)
Within-Subjects Designs	187	(4)
The Problem of Controlling Sequence Effects	191	(7)
Testing Once per Condition	191	(1)
Complete Counterbalancing	191	(1)
Partial Counterbalancing	192	(1)
Testing More Than Once per Condition	193	(1)
Reverse Counterbalancing	194	(1)
Block Randomization	194	(2)
Problems with Counterbalancing	196	(2)
Control Problems in Developmental Research	198	(1)
Problems with Biasing	199	(1)
Classic Studies---The Record for Repeated Measures	200	(4)
Experimenter Bias	201	(2)
Controlling for Experimenter Bias	203	(1)
Participant Bias	203	(1)
Origins---Productivity at Western Electric	204	(4)
Controlling for Participant Bias	205	(3)
Ethics---Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too	208	(5)
Experimental Design I: Single-Factor Designs	213	(32)
Single Factor---Two Levels	214	(5)
Between-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs	216	(2)
Within-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs	218	(1)
Classic Studies---Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding?	219	(4)
Analyzing Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs	222	(1)
Control Group Designs	223	(2)
Placebo Control Groups	223	(1)
Waiting List Control Groups	224	(1)
Ethics---Who's in the Control Group?	225	(4)
Yoked Control Groups	227	(2)
Single Factor---More Than Two Levels	229	(2)
Between-Subjects, Multilevel Designs	229	(2)
Origins---Nonlinear Results: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve	231	(14)
Within-Subjects, Multilevel Designs	234	(1)
Presenting the Data	235	(1)
Types of Graphs	236	(2)
Analyzing Single-Factor, Multilevel Designs	238	(7)
Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs	245	(36)
Factorial Essentials	246	(3)
Identifying Factorial Designs	246	(3)
Outcomes---ain Effects and Interactions	249	(10)
Main Effects	249	(2)
Interactions	251	(4)
Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions	255	(4)
Classic Studies---To Sleep, Perchance to Recall	259	(3)
Varieties of Factorial Designs	262	(10)
Mixed Factorial Designs	262	(4)
Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P x E Designs	266	(4)
Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs	270	(2)
Ethics---On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher	272	(2)
Analyzing Factorial Designs	273	(1)
Origins---Factorials Down on the Farm	274	(7)
Correlational Research	281	(34)
Psychology's Two Disciplines	282	(1)
Origins---Galton's Studies of Genius	283	(2)
Correlation and Regression---The Basics	285	(8)
Positive and Negative Correlations	285	(1)
Scatterplots	286	(1)
Assuming Linearity	287	(2)
Restricting the Range	289	(1)
Coefficient of Determination---r2	290	(1)
Regression Analysis---Making Predictions	291	(2)
Interpreting Correlations	293	(6)
Correlations and Causality	294	(1)
Directionality	294	(2)
Third Variables	296	(2)
Caution: Correlational Statistics versus Correlational Research	298	(1)
Using Correlations	299	(3)
The Need for Correlational Research	299	(1)
Varieties of Correlational Research	300	(2)
Ethics---APA Guidelines for Psychological Testing	302	(2)
Classic Studies---The Achieving Society	304	(2)
Multivariate Analysis	306	(9)
Multiple Regression	306	(1)
Factor Analysis	307	(8)
Quasi-Experimental Designs and Applied Research	315	(36)
Beyond the Laboratory	317	(4)
Applied Psychology in Historical Context	319	(2)
Origins---Hugo Munsterberg: Applied Psychologist Extraordinaire	321	(2)
Design Problems in Applied Research	322	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	323	(13)
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs	323	(1)
Outcomes	324	(2)
Regression and Matching	326	(5)
Interrupted Time Series Designs	331	(1)
Outcomes	331	(3)
Variations on the Basic Time Series Design	334	(2)
Program Evaluation	336	(1)
Classic Studies---Reforms as Experiments	336	(8)
Planning for Programs---Needs Analysis	338	(2)
Monitoring Programs---Formative Evaluation	340	(1)
Evaluating Outcomes---Summative Evaluation	341	(1)
Weighing Costs---Cost-Effectiveness Analysis	342	(1)
A Note on Qualitative Analysis	343	(1)
Ethics---Evaluation Research and Ethics	344	(7)
Small N Designs	351	(36)
Research in Psychology Began with Small N	352	(3)
Classic-Studies---Cats in Puzzle Boxes	355	(2)
Reasons for Small N Designs	357	(3)
Misleading Results from Grouped Data	357	(2)
Practical Problems with Large n Designs	359	(1)
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior	360	(3)
Operant Conditioning	360	(3)
Classic Studies---Schedules of Reinforcement	363	(3)
Applied Behavior Analysis	365	(1)
Ethics---Controlling Human Behavior	366	(2)
Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis	368	(11)
Elements of Single-Subject Designs	368	(1)
Withdrawal Designs	369	(1)
Multiple Baseline Designs	370	(4)
Changing Criterion Designs	374	(3)
Other Designs	377	(1)
Evaluating Single-Subject Designs	378	(1)
Psychophysics	379	(8)
Thresholds	380	(1)
Methods of Psychophysics	380	(1)
Psychophysics and Small N	381	(6)
Descriptive Research Methods	387	(32)
Observational Research	388	(2)
Varieties of Observational Research	388	(1)
Naturalistic Observation	389	(1)
Participant Observation	389	(1)
Evaluating Observational Methods	389	(1)
Classic Studies---When Prophecy Fails	390	(8)
Absence of Control	391	(1)
Observer Bias	392	(1)
Subject Reactivity	393	(1)
Ethics	394	(4)
Survey Research	398	(5)
Varieties of Survey Methods	398	(1)
Interviews	398	(1)
Written Surveys	399	(2)
Phone Surveying	401	(1)
Evaluating Survey Research	401	(2)
Ethics---Using and Abusing Surveys	403	(2)
Case Studies	405	(2)
Classic Studies---The Mind of a Mnemonist	407	(3)
Evaluating Case Studies	409	(1)
Archival Research	410	(9)
Varieties of Archival Research	411	(2)
Evaluating Archival Research	413	(6)
Epilogue	419	(8)
What I Learned in My Research Methods Course	419	(2)
A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part II)	421	(6)
Eliott Aronson	422	(1)
Elizabeth Loftus	423	(4)
APPENDIX A Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology	427	(32)
Research Reports, APA Style	427	(1)
General Guidelines	428	(5)
Writing Style	428	(1)
Reducing Bias in Language	428	(4)
Academic Honesty	432	(1)
Miscellaneous	432	(1)
Main Sections of the Lab Report	433	(8)
Title Page	433	(1)
The Manuscript Page Header/Page Number	433	(1)
Running Head	433	(2)
Title/Author/Affiliation	435	(1)
Abstract	435	(1)
Introduction	436	(1)
APA Citation Format	436	(1)
Method	437	(1)
Results	438	(1)
Reporting the Data: Statistics	438	(1)
Portraying the Data: Tables and Figures	439	(1)
Discussion	439	(1)
References	440	(1)
Presentations and Posters	441	(2)
Tips for Presenting a Paper	441	(1)
Tips for Presenting a Poster	442	(1)
A Sample Research Report	443	(16)
APPENDIX B Developing Surveys for Research in Psychology	459	(8)
Survey Research---General Planning Guidelines	459	(1)
Survey Construction	460	(5)
Attitudes	461	(2)
Knowledge and Memory	463	(1)
Demographic Information	464	(1)
Miscellaneous Tips	465	(2)
APPENDIX C Using Statistics	467	(24)
Making Intelligent Use of Statistics	467	(1)
Assessing Relationships	468	(3)
Example 1. Pearson's r	468	(2)
Example 2. Regression Analysis	470	(1)
Assessing Differences	471	(20)
Example 3. Xχ2---Goodness of Fit	471	(2)
Example 4. Xχ2---Two Samples	473	(1)
Example 5. Mann-Whitney U Test	474	(2)
Example 6. t Test---Independent Groups	476	(2)
Example 7. t Test---Dependent Groups	478	(2)
Example 8. 1-Way ANOVA---Independent Groups	480	(3)
Example 9. 1-Way ANOVA---Repeated Measures	483	(3)
Example 10. 2-Way ANOVA---Independent Groups	486	(5)
APPENDIX D Statistical Tables	491	(12)
Table D.1. Random Numbers	492	(2)
Table D.2. Critical Values for Pearson's r	494	(1)
Table D.3. Critical Values for Chi-Square (χ2)	494	(1)
Table D.4. Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney U Test	495	(2)
Table D.5. Critical Values from the t Distribution	497	(1)
Table D.6. Critical Values from the F Distribution	498	(5)
APPENDIX E Answers to End-of-Chapter Reviews	503	(10)
Glossary	513	(12)
References	525	(16)
Name Index	541	(4)
Subject Index	545	(6)
Photo Credits	551	(2)
Text and Illustration Credits	553