Restoration of Contaminated Aquifers: Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Compounds, Second Edition

by Winegardner; Duane L.

• ISBN13: 9781566703208
• ISBN10: 1566703204
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-06-22
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

The second edition of Restoration of Contaminated Aquifers: Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Compounds incorporates the latest advances in in-situ remediation and natural attenuation, and maintains the comprehensive, accessible structure that made the first edition a classic. The new edition broadens the scope of the first by examining all forms of hydrocarbon contamination. The authors emphasize the remediation of Non-aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) and, Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs). They also address the growing role of natural attenuation. The second edition opens with an improved introduction. There are new sections on site characterization, remediation economics and site closure. And unlike other books on this subject, the new edition offers vital managerial and project management guidance, such as, initial project planning and assessment, a look at remediation economics, and a how-to on project closure and follow-up. Since its initial publication in 1991, Restoration of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Aquifers has been the established, invaluable reference for environmental professionals and regulators. Its sweeping, yet approachable format is inestimable in the field, in the lab, and in the policy-making arena. Restoration of Contaminated Aquifers: Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Compounds will continue to be the guide to the war against petroleum contamination.

Table of Contents

Introduction
Petroleum Hydrocarbon Use in Society	1	(6)
The Use of Organic Compounds in Society	7	(1)
The Role of the Professional Environmentalist	8	(3)
The Role of the Environmental Geologist	9	(1)
The Role of the Environmental Engineer	10	(1)
Defining the Environmental Challenge	11	(4)
References	13	(2)
Regulatory Framework
Introduction	15	(3)
Agency Responsibilities	18	(2)
Environmental Protection Agency	18	(1)
Department of Transportation	19	(1)
Other Federal Agencies	19	(1)
State Agencies	20	(1)
The Federal Regulatory Process	20	(1)
Pertinent Federal Regulations	21	(11)
National Environmental Policy Act	21	(1)
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures	21	(1)
Safe Drinking Water Act	21	(2)
Drinking Water Standards	23	(1)
Underground Injection Control Program	23	(1)
Sole Source Aquifers	24	(1)
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act	25	(1)
Treatment, Disposal, and Storage Facilities	25	(1)
Underground Storage Tanks	26	(2)
Clean Water Act	28	(1)
Storm Water Permitting Program	29	(1)
Toxic Substance Control Act	29	(1)
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act	30	(1)
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act	31	(1)
Pipeline Safety Act	31	(1)
State Programs and Regulations	32	(4)
Voluntary Cleanup Programs	32	(1)
Brownfield Initiative	32	(1)
Underground and Aboveground Storage Tanks Program	33	(2)
State Programs Affecting the Petroleum Refining Industry	35	(1)
Risk-Based Corrective Action or ``Rebecca''	36	(5)
References	37	(4)
Hydrogeologic Principles
Introduction	41	(1)
Porosity, Permeability, and Diagenesis	42	(4)
Sedimentary Sequences and Facies Architecture	46	(5)
Hydrogeologic Facies	48	(1)
Hydrostratigraphic Models	49	(1)
Sequence Stratigraphy	50	(1)
Structural Style	51	(2)
The Flux Equation	53	(3)
Darcy's Law	54	(1)
Fick's Law	55	(1)
Gases and Vapors	55	(1)
Saturated Systems	56	(21)
Types of Aquifers	63	(5)
Steady-State Flow	68	(9)
Nonsteady Flow	77	(1)
Unsaturated Systems	77	(12)
References	85	(4)
Hydrocarbon Chemistry
Introduction	89	(1)
Defining Petroleum	90	(1)
Hydrocarbon Structure	90	(7)
Hydrocarbon Products	97	(5)
Refining Processes	97	(1)
Separation	97	(4)
Conversion	101	(1)
Treatment	102	(1)
Degradation Processes	102	(2)
Forensic Chemistry	104	(18)
API Gravity	106	(1)
Distillation Curves	107	(2)
Trace Metals Analysis	109	(1)
Gas Chromatography Fingerprinting	110	(1)
Gasoline-Range Hydrocarbons	110	(4)
C8+ Alkane Gas Chromatography	114	(1)
Aromatic-Range Hydrocarbons	114	(1)
Higher-Range Petroleum Fractions	115	(3)
Isotope Fingerprinting	118	(4)
Age Dating of NAPL Pools and Dissolved Hydrocarbon Plumes	122	(9)
Radioisotope Age Dating Techniques	124	(1)
Changes in Configuration of Plume over Time	125	(1)
Changes in Concentrations over Time	126	(1)
Degradation Rates	127	(1)
Changes in Concentration of Two Contaminants over Time	127	(1)
References	128	(3)
Fate and Transport
Introduction	131	(1)
NAPL Characteristics and Subsurface Behavior	132	(6)
Subsurface Processes	138	(10)
Volatilization	139	(4)
Sorption	143	(2)
Advection, Dispersion, and Diffusion	145	(3)
Occurrence and Flow of Immiscible Liquids	148	(19)
The Unsaturated Zone (above the Water Table)	148	(1)
Water Flow through the Unsaturated Zone	148	(2)
Multiphase Fluid Flow in the Unsaturated Zone	150	(2)
Saturation Volumes	152	(1)
NAPL Migration	153	(1)
Three Phase --- Two Immiscible Liquids and Air in the Unsaturated Zone	154	(5)
The Saturated Zone (below the Water Table)	159	(1)
Steady-State Saturated Flow --- Single Fluid	159	(1)
Flow of Two Immiscible Fluids	160	(1)
Dispersion from NAPL to Solution	161	(1)
References	162	(5)
NAPL Subsurface Characterization
Introduction	167	(1)
Field Methods for Subsurface NAPL Detection	168	(3)
Monitoring Well Installation and Design	168	(1)
NAPL Detection Methods	168	(3)
Apparent vs. Actua NAPL Thickness	171	(7)
LNAPL Apparent vs. Actual Thickness	171	(6)
DNAPL Apparent vs. Actual Thickness	177	(1)
Apparent vs. Actual LNAPL Thickness Determination	178	(13)
Indirect Empirical Approach	178	(8)
Direct Field Approach	186	(1)
Bailer Test	186	(1)
Continuous Core Analysis	187	(1)
Test Pit Method	187	(1)
Baildown Test	187	(3)
Recovery Well Recharge Test	190	(1)
Dielectric Well Logging Tool	191	(1)
Optoelectronic Sensor	191	(1)
Volume Determination	191	(5)
Recoverability	196	(4)
Residual Hydrocarbon	196	(1)
Relative Permeability	197	(2)
LNAPL Transmissivity	199	(1)
Other Factors	200	(1)
Time Frame for NAPL Recovery	200	(9)
References	202	(7)
Remedial Technologies for NAPLs
Introduction	209	(3)
Passive Systems	212	(3)
Linear Interception	212	(1)
Trenches	212	(1)
Funnel and Gate Technology	213	(1)
Hydraulic Underflow and Skimmer	214	(1)
Density Skimmers	215	(1)
Active Systems	215	(20)
Well-Point Systems	216	(3)
Vacuum-Enhanced Suction-Lift Well-Point System	219	(5)
One-Pump System	224	(1)
Submersible Turbine Pumps	225	(2)
Positive Displacement Pumps	227	(1)
Pneumatic Skimmer Pumps	227	(1)
Two-Pump System	228	(2)
Other Recovery Systems	230	(1)
Timed Bailers	230	(1)
Rope and Belt Skimmers	230	(2)
Vapor Extraction and Biodegradation	232	(1)
Air Sparging	232	(2)
Bioslurping	234	(1)
Coproduced Water-Handling Considerations	235	(2)
DNAPL Recovery Strategies	237	(4)
Surfactants	237	(1)
Thermally Enhanced Extraction (Steam Injection)	237	(1)
Cosolvent Flooding	238	(1)
Density Manipulations	238	(1)
References	238	(3)
Handling of Coproduced Water
Introduction	241	(1)
Oil--Water Separation	242	(2)
Gravity Separation	242	(1)
Dissolved Air Flotation	242	(1)
Chemical Coagulation--Flocculation and Sedimentation	243	(1)
Coalescers	243	(1)
Membrane Processes	244	(1)
Biological Processes	244	(1)
Carbon Adsorption	244	(1)
Removal of Inorganics	244	(1)
Removal of Organics	245	(6)
Air Stripping	245	(1)
Carbon Adsorption	246	(3)
Biological Treatment	249	(2)
Treatment Trains	251	(1)
Cost Comparisons	252	(3)
Alternative 1	252	(1)
Alternative 2	253	(1)
Alternative 3	253	(2)
Disposal Options	255	(10)
Surface Discharge	255	(1)
Site Reuse	255	(1)
Reinjection	256	(1)
Regulatory Aspects	256	(1)
Zones of Reinjection	256	(1)
Injection Well Construction	257	(1)
Well Design	258	(2)
Injection Well Operations	260	(2)
References	262	(3)
Remediation Strategies for Dissolved Contaminant Plumes
Introduction	265	(1)
Pump-and-Treat Technology	266	(5)
Air Sparging	271	(5)
Applications	272	(3)
Field Testing	275	(1)
Limitations	275	(1)
In Situ Groundwater Bioremediation	276	(10)
Site Characteristics That Control Aquifer Bioremediation	279	(1)
Hydraulic Conductivity	279	(1)
Soil Structure and Stratification	279	(1)
Groundwater Mineral Content	280	(1)
Groundwater pH	280	(1)
Groundwater Temperature	280	(1)
Microbial Presence	281	(1)
Bench-Scale Testing	281	(1)
Pilot Studies	282	(1)
Groundwater Modeling	283	(1)
System Design	283	(1)
Estimates of Electron Acceptor and Nutrient Requirements	284	(1)
Well Placement	284	(1)
Electron Acceptor and Nutrient Addition	285	(1)
System Controls and Alarms	286	(1)
Start-up Operations	286	(1)
Operational Monitoring	287	(1)
Remedial Progress Monitoring	287	(1)
Long-Term Observations	287	(4)
References	288	(3)
Treatment of Impacted Soil in the Vadose Zone
Introduction	291	(1)
In Situ Solidification/Stabilization	292	(6)
Soil Vapor Extraction	298	(3)
Air Sparging	301	(2)
Steam Injection and Hot Air Stripping	303	(3)
Soil Washing	306	(1)
Leaching in Place	306	(1)
Leaching Aboveground	306	(1)
Bioventing	307	(2)
Bioremediation	309	(1)
Natural Attenuation	310	(1)
Other Technologies	310	(4)
Vacuum-Vaporized Well	310	(3)
Hydrofracturing Enhancement	313	(1)
Electrochemical	314	(1)
Vitrification and Electrical Heating	314	(1)
SVE Case Histories	314	(15)
Case History Example 1	314	(3)
Case History Example 2	317	(7)
References	324	(5)
Economic Considerations for Aquifer Restoration
Introduction	329	(2)
Impacted Soil Considerations	331	(2)
Lateral and Vertical Distribution	331	(1)
Contaminant Type	332	(1)
Time Frame	332	(1)
Regulatory Climate	333	(1)
LNAPL Recovery	333	(9)
Preliminary Considerations	334	(1)
Economics of LNAPL Recovery	335	(3)
Project Planning and Management	338	(1)
Estimating Reserves	338	(4)
Other Factors	342	(1)
Dissolved Hydrocarbons in Groundwater Considerations	342	(6)
Lateral and Vertical Distribution	342	(1)
Contaminant Type	343	(1)
Economics and Time Frames	344	(2)
Site Closure	346	(1)
Air Sparging Pilot Study Case History	347	(1)
Regulatory Climate	348	(5)
References	350	(3)
LNAPL Recovery Case Histories
Introduction	353	(1)
Vacuum-Enhanced Suction-Lift Well-Point System	353	(6)
Rope Skimming System	359	(7)
Vacuum-Enhanced Eductor System	366	(3)
Combined One- and Two-Pump System with Reinjection	369	(9)
Importance of Lithofacies Control to LNAPL Occurrence and Recovery Strategy	378	(5)
Regional Long-Term Strategy for LNAPL Recovery	383	(12)
Regulatory Framework	383	(4)
Hydrogeologic Setting	387	(3)
LNAPL Occurrence	390	(1)
LNAPL Hydrocarbon Recovery	391	(1)
Regional Long-Term Remediation Strategy	391	(3)
References	394	(1)
Site Closure
Introduction	395	(1)
Biological Degradation	396	(9)
Aerobic Reactions	397	(1)
Anaerobic Reactions	398	(1)
Fermentation and Methane Formation	399	(1)
Intermediate and Alternate Reaction Products	399	(1)
Biodegradation Rates	399	(6)
Natural Biodegradation	405	(2)
Enhanced Biorestoration	407	(1)
Field Procedures	407	(3)
Natural Attenuation as a Remedial Strategy	410	(1)
Evaluation of Parameters	411	(5)
Hydrogeologic Factors	412	(2)
Chemical Characteristics	414	(1)
Biological Characteristics	415	(1)
Circumstantial Factors	416	(1)
Case Histories	416	(11)
Natural Attenuation of Diesel-Range Hydrocarbons in Soil	416	(3)
Natural Attenuation of Asymptotic Gasoline-Range Hydrocarbons in Groundwater	419	(3)
Natural Attenuation of Elevated Gasoline-Range Hydrocarbons in Groundwater	422	(1)
References	423	(4)
Appendixes
Appendix A --- API Gravity and Corresponding Weights and Pressure at 60°F	427	(2)
Appendix B --- Specific Gravity Corresponding to API Gravity	429	(2)
Appendix C --- Viscosity and Specific Gravity of Common Petroleum Products	431	(3)
Appendix D --- Viscosity Conversion Table	434	(1)
Index	435