A Rhetoric for the Social Sciences A Guide to Academic and Professional Communication

by Hansen, Kristine

• ISBN13: 9780134402727
• ISBN10: 0134402723
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1997-08-18
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

This book provides social science majors with a systematic way of learning to write in their fields. It is based on the assumption that such writing is not a mechanical process, but a kind of rhetoric social scientists use to persuade each other of the validity of their research.KEY TOPICS: Features comprehensive coverage of research methods, including how to plan and propose original research, how to gather data or evidence from sources and how to document it. It goes beyond the typical survey of library tools and offers a brief chapter on how to use the Internet as a research tool.

Table of Contents

PART I: RHETORIC AND COMPOSING	3	(40)
1 RHETORIC AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES	3	(18)
What Is Rhetoric?	4	(4)
What Are the Social Sciences?	8	(2)
The Social Production of Knowledge	10	(5)
The Process of Knowledge Making Starts with Questions	12	(1)
Answers Come from Observations	13	(1)
Observation Relies on Methods and Instruments	13	(1)
Interpretations of Data Become Claims of Knowledge	14	(1)
Claims Are Disseminated for Peer Review	14	(1)
How Persuasion Creates Change in Social Sciences	15	(2)
The Rhetorical Situation	17	(2)
Suggestions for Discussion or Writing	19	(1)
References	20	(1)
2 THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF COMPOSING	21	(22)
The Subprocesses of Composing	22	(4)
Common Ways of Prewriting	22	(1)
Specialized Kinds of Prewriting	23	(1)
Drafting	24	(1)
Revising	24	(1)
Editing	25	(1)
Composing with a Computer	25	(1)
The Individual Nature of Composing	26	(1)
Composing as an Idiosyncratic Act	26	(1)
Composing as a Private Act	26	(1)
The Social Nature of Composing	27	(5)
Language as a Social Medium	27	(1)
The Influence of Audiences	28	(1)
The Social Evolution and Influence of Genres	29	(2)
The Influence of Genres on Writers	31	(1)
Composing Collaboratively	32	(6)
Guidelines for Working in Groups	34	(2)
Guidelines for Individuals	36	(1)
Avoiding Plagiarism and Giving Credit	37	(1)
Suggestions for Discussion or Writing	38	(1)
References	39	(4)
PART II: CREATING AND WRITING ABOUT NEW KNOWLEDGE	43	(176)
3 RESEARCH METHODS, WRITING, AND ETHICS	43	(12)
Researching Is Part of Writing	43	(1)
Methods as Disciplined Inquiry	44	(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods	45	(3)
Ethical Considerations in Doing Research	48	(2)
Using Human Participants	48	(1)
Institutional Review Boards	48	(2)
Research that Qualifies for Exempt Review	50	(1)
Plagiarism and Fraud	51	(1)
The Consequences of Ethical Lapses	52	(3)
4 INTERPRETING DOCUMENTS	55	(38)
Interpretations Depend on Prior Knowledge and Assumptions	56	(1)
Statistics Must Also Be Interpreted	57	(1)
What Histories Are Made Of	58	(2)
Reading Historical Documents	60	(2)
Writing about Historical Documents	62	(1)
Outline a Plausible Argument by Asking Questions	62	(1)
Draft Your Paper	63	(1)
Seek Feedback	63	(1)
Revise and Edit Your Paper	63	(1)
A Professional Example	63	(15)
A Student Example	78	(12)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	90	(1)
References	91	(2)
5 INTERVIEWING	93	(30)
Preparing for the Interview	94	(2)
Find Informants	94	(1)
Contact the Informants	95	(1)
Do Necessary Background Research	95	(1)
Plan Your Questions	96	(1)
Prepare the Materials You Will Need	96	(1)
Recording the Interview	96	(2)
Note Taking	96	(1)
Audiotaping	97	(1)
Videotaping	98	(1)
Conducting the Interview	98	(2)
Moving from Notes or Tape to Text	100	(3)
Transcripts	100	(1)
Dialogue or Edited Transcripts	101	(1)
Interview Summary	102	(1)
Synthesis and Elaboration	103	(1)
A Professional Example	103	(9)
A Student Example	112	(8)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	120	(1)
References	121	(2)
6 OBSERVING	123	(34)
Kinds of Observation	124	(3)
Unobtrusive Observation	124	(1)
Structured Observation	125	(1)
Case Studies	125	(1)
Participant Observation	126	(1)
Making Observations	127	(4)
Define Your Purpose	127	(1)
Select People, Setting, and Behavior for Observation	127	(1)
Record Data	128	(2)
Make Conclusions Reliable	130	(1)
Analyzing and Writing about Observations	131	(2)
A Professional Example	133	(15)
A Student Example	148	(6)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	154	(3)
7 SURVEYING	157	(30)
Advantages of Surveying	157	(1)
Disadvantages of Surveying	158	(1)
Designing a Survey	159	(5)
Define Your Purpose	159	(1)
Create Demographic Questions	160	(1)
Create Fixed-Response Questions	160	(1)
Write Open-Ended Questions	161	(1)
Write Unambiguous Questions	162	(1)
Determine the Order of Questions	163	(1)
Write Clear Directions	163	(1)
Finding Respondents	164	(3)
Random Sampling	164	(1)
Convenience Sampling	165	(1)
Sample Size	166	(1)
Conducting the Survey	166	(1)
Analyzing the Data	167	(1)
Writing the Report	168	(1)
A Professional Example	168	(11)
A Student Example	179	(7)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	186	(1)
References	186	(1)
8 EXPERIMENTING	187	(32)
The Purpose of Experiments	187	(2)
Steps and Considerations in Conducting Experiments	189	(7)
Creating Hypotheses	189	(1)
Creating Operational Definitions	189	(1)
Designing the Experiment and Implementing Controls	190	(2)
Selecting Participants	192	(1)
Establishing Validity and Reliability	193	(2)
Meeting Ethical Standards	195	(1)
Writing about Experiments	196	(1)
A Professional Example	197	(12)
A Student Example	209	(6)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	215	(1)
References	215	(4)
PART III: FINDING AND USING EXISTING KNOWLEDGE	219	(54)
9 LIBRARY RESEARCH AND WRITING	219	(38)
Why Do Library Research?	219	(1)
Finding Information in the Library	220	(7)
Subject Headings Lists	220	(1)
Card and On-Line Catalogs	221	(1)
Periodical Indexes	222	(3)
Other Useful Sources	225	(2)
Evaluating Sources	227	(6)
Source Reliability	227	(4)
Source Usefulness	231	(2)
Recording Information	233	(7)
Recording Bibliographic Information	233	(1)
Taking Notes	234	(1)
Types of Borrowing	235	(4)
Methods of Recording Notes	239	(1)
Synthesizing Information	240	(3)
Outlining	240	(1)
Drafting	241	(1)
Attributing and Documenting	241	(1)
Formatting the Final Draft	242	(1)
A Student Example	243	(12)
References	255	(2)
10 USING THE INTERNET AS A SCHOLARLY RESOURCE	257	(16)
How the Internet Works	258	(1)
Accessing the Internet	258	(1)
Access through a Provider	258	(1)
Access through a Host Computer	259	(1)
Using the Internet as a Scholar and Researcher	259	(3)
E-mail	259	(2)
Accessing OPACs (On-Line Public Access Catalogs)	261	(1)
Electronic Journals	261	(1)
Electronic Conferences	261	(1)
Retrieving Information from the Internet	262	(3)
Telnet	262	(1)
Gophers	263	(1)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)	263	(1)
World Wide Web	264	(1)
The Pros and Cons of Using the Internet for Research	265	(2)
Rapid Technological Change	265	(1)
Reliability	266	(1)
Ethics and Etiquette on the Internet	267	(1)
Use E-mail Conscientiously and Respectfully	267	(1)
Respect Your Host Computer	268	(1)
Limit Internet Traffic	268	(1)
Obey Copyright Laws	268	(1)
Conclusion	268	(1)
Glossary	269	(4)
PART IV: COMMON SOCIAL SCIENCE GENRES	273	(70)
11 PROPOSALS AND PROSPECTUSES	273	(26)
Proposals	274	(10)
Proposals Competing for Money	274	(1)
Proposals Seeking Permission	275	(1)
Example Student Proposal	276	(8)
The Prospectus	284	(14)
Parts of the Prospectus	284	(5)
Organization of the Prospectus	289	(2)
Example Student Prospectus	291	(7)
Suggestions for Writing	298	(1)
12 PUBLIC POSITION PAPERS AND OPINION PIECES	299	(18)
Writing a Position Paper	301	(5)
Define and Limit the Problem	301	(1)
Research the Problem	301	(1)
Evaluate Possible Solutions	302	(2)
Recommend One or More Solutions	304	(1)
Draft the Position Paper	304	(2)
A Professional Example of a Position Paper	306	(6)
Writing Opinion Pieces	312	(1)
A Professional Example of an Opinion Piece	313	(2)
Suggestions for Research and Writing	315	(2)
13 ABSTRACTS, CRITIQUES, AND REVIEWS	317	(26)
Writing an Abstract	318	(2)
Writing a Critique	320	(5)
A Note of Caution	324	(1)
Example of a Student Critique	325	(4)
Writing a Review	329	(4)
The Facts of Publication	330	(1)
Statement of the Book's Purpose and Scope	330	(1)
Summary of the Book's Contents	331	(1)
Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses	331	(1)
General Recommendation	332	(1)
A Professional Book Review	333	(3)
A Student Book Review	336	(4)
Suggestions for Writing	340	(3)
PART V: CAREER-RELATED GENRES	343	(36)
14 RESUMES	343	(14)
Types of Resumes	343	(1)
Traditional Resumes	344	(8)
Organization of the Traditional Resume	344	(1)
Contents of the Traditional Resume	345	(3)
Design of the Resume	348	(1)
Prose Style	349	(3)
Paper and Printing	352	(1)
Scannable Resumes	352	(1)
Design of the Scannable Resume	352	(1)
Organization of the Scannable Resume	353	(1)
On-Line Resumes	353	(2)
Suggestions for Writing	355	(2)
15 LETTERS AND MEMOS	357	(22)
Letters of Application	358	(7)
Parts of the Letter	358	(2)
Design of the Letter	360	(1)
Composing Your Letter	361	(4)
Letters of Intent and Personal Statements	365	(7)
Importance of the Letter	365	(1)
Generating Substance Through Prewriting	366	(1)
Drafting around a Theme	366	(1)
Revising and Editing	367	(5)
Memoranda	372	(4)
Composing the Memo	372	(1)
Designing the Memo	373	(3)
Suggestions for Writing	376	(3)
PART VI: VISUAL AND ORAL RHETORIC	379	(56)
16 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DOCUMENT DESIGN	379	(18)
Enhancing a Document's Readability	379	(7)
Page Layout	379	(5)
Typography	384	(2)
Visual Cues to Text Structure	386	(8)
Headings	386	(4)
Headings and Professional Style Guides	390	(4)
References	394	(3)
17 GRAPHICS	397	(20)
Graphics as Rhetoric	397	(1)
Tables	398	(2)
Figures	400	(7)
Photographs	400	(1)
Line Drawings	400	(2)
Maps	402	(1)
Diagrams and Flowcharts	402	(2)
Graphs	404	(3)
Positioning and Labeling Graphics	407	(5)
Position Graphics for Easy Viewing	407	(1)
Number Graphics for Easy Reference	408	(1)
Give Graphics Descriptive Captions	408	(1)
Special Considerations for Tables and Figures	408	(4)
Ethical Issues in Using Graphics	412	(3)
Plagiarism	412	(1)
Omitting or Misrepresenting Variations in the Data	412	(1)
Distorting or Cluttering the Design	413	(2)
Conclusion	415	(1)
Suggestions for Practice	416	(1)
References	416	(1)
18 ORAL PRESENTATIONS	417	(18)
Evaluating the Rhetorical Situation	418	(1)
Defining Your Purpose	418	(1)
Sizing Up Your Audience	418	(1)
Assessing the Context and Environment	419	(1)
Organizing Your Presentation	419	(5)
The Beginning	420	(2)
The Middle	422	(1)
The Ending	423	(1)
Using Resources Wisely	424	(4)
Time	424	(1)
Environment	424	(1)
Visual Aids	425	(3)
Planning for Delivery	428	(4)
Memory Support	428	(1)
Appropriate Dress	429	(1)
Voice Qualities	430	(1)
Nonverbal Communication	431	(1)
Rehearsing Your Delivery	432	(1)
Suggestions for Discussion and Application	432	(3)
PART VII: STYLE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES	435	(50)
19 INSTITUTIONAL STYLE	435	(14)
Why Do Styles Differ?	435	(1)
Style in the Social Sciences	436	(10)
The Detached Persona	437	(2)
Jargon: When It Is and It Isn't	439	(3)
Inclusive and Unbiased Language	442	(4)
Conclusion	446	(1)
Suggestions for Writing or Discussion	447	(1)
References	448	(1)
20 DOCUMENTATION STYLES	449	(36)
What Is a Documentation Style?	449	(1)
What this Chapter Includes	450	(1)
American Psychological Association (APA) Style	451	(11)
In-Text References	451	(5)
Creating the List of References	456	(2)
Examples of APA Style	458	(4)
Turabian Reference List (TRL) Style	462	(10)
In-Text References	462	(5)
Creating the List of References	467	(2)
Examples of TRL Style	469	(3)
Turabian Note and Bibliography (TNB) Style	472	(12)
General Format for Footnotes and Endnotes	473	(1)
Using Notes to Document Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries	474	(2)
General Guidelines for the Bibliography	476	(2)
Examples of TNB Style	478	(6)
References	484	(1)
INDEX	485