Risk Communication : A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks

by LUNDGREN REGINA E.

• ISBN13: 9781574771428
• ISBN10: 1574771426
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-08-01
• Publisher: Battelle Pr

Author Biography

Andrea McMakin is a Senior Communication Specialist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington.

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Tables and Figures	xix
1 Introduction	1	(10)
To Begin	2	(4)
The Risk Communication Process	6	(2)
Audiences, Situations, and Purposes	8	(1)
References	9	(2)
PART I UNDERSTANDING RISK COMMUNICATION	11	(102)
2 Approaches to Communicating Risk	13	(16)
Communication Process Approach	14	(1)
National Research Council's Approach	15	(1)
Mental Models Approach	16	(2)
Crisis Communication Approach	18	(1)
Convergence Communication Approach	18	(1)
Three-Challenge Approach	19	(1)
Social Constructionist Approach	20	(1)
Hazard Plus Outrage Approach	21	(1)
Mental Noise Approach	22	(1)
Social Network Contagion Approach	23	(1)
Social Amplification of Risk Approach	23	(1)
Social Trust Approach	24	(2)
In Summary	26	(1)
References	26	(1)
Additional Resources	27	(2)
3 Laws That Mandate Risk Communication	29	(18)
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act	30	(4)
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act	34	(1)
Executive Order 12898, Environmental Justice in Minority Populations	34	(1)
Executive Order 13045, Reduce Environmental Health and Safety Risks to Children	35	(1)
National Environmental Policy Act	35	(2)
Natural Resource Damage Assessment	37	(1)
Occupational Safety and Health Act	38	(3)
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act	41	(1)
Risk Management Program Rule	41	(1)
Privacy Rule	42	(1)
Other Government Inducements	42	(1)
In Summary	43	(1)
References	44	(1)
Additional Resources	45	(2)
4 Constraints to Effective Risk Communication	47	(26)
Constraints on the Communicator	47	(12)
Organizational Constraints	48	(8)
Emotional Constraints	56	(3)
Constraints from the Audience	59	(8)
Hostility and Outrage	59	(4)
Apathy	63	(1)
Mistrust of Risk Assessment	64	(1)
Disagreements on the Acceptable Magnitude of Risk	65	(1)
Lack of Faith in Science and Institutions	65	(1)
Learning Disabilities	66	(1)
Constraints for Both Communicator and Audience	67	(2)
Stigma	67	(1)
Stability of the Knowledge Base	68	(1)
In Summary	69	(1)
References	70	(1)
Additional Resources	71	(2)
5 Ethical Issues	73	(22)
Social Ethics	74	(8)
The Sociopolitical Environment's Influence	74	(2)
The Use of the Risk Idiom	76	(3)
Fairness of the Risk	79	(1)
Consequences of Multiple Meanings	80	(1)
The Issue of Sigma	81	(1)
Organizational Ethics	82	(7)
Legitimacy of Representation	83	(2)
Designation of Primary Audience	85	(1)
Releasing Information	86	(2)
Attitude toward Compliance with Regulations	88	(1)
Personal Ethics	89	(2)
Using Persuasion	89	(1)
The Role of the Communicator	90	(1)
Organizational Ethics or Personal Ethics?	91	(1)
In Summary	91	(1)
References	92	(1)
Additional Resources	93	(2)
6 Principles of Risk Communication	95	(20)
Principles of Process	95	(5)
Know Your Communication Limits and Purpose	96	(1)
Whenever Possible, Pretest Your Message	97	(1)
Communicate Early, Often, and Fully	98	(1)
Remember That Perception is Reality	99	(1)
Principles of Presentation	100	(5)
Know Your Audience	100	(1)
Don't Limit Yourself to One Form, One Method	100	(1)
Simplify Language and Presentation, Not Content	101	(1)
Be Objective, Not Subjective	101	(1)
Communicate Honestly, Clearly, and Compassionately	101	(1)
Listen and Deal with Specific Concerns	102	(1)
Convey the Same Information to All Segments of Your Audience	103	(1)
Deal with Uncertainty	103	(2)
Principles for Comparing Risks	105	(4)
Use Analogies, but Don't Trivialize	106	(1)
Use Ranges	106	(1)
Compare to Standards	107	(1)
Compare to Other Estimates of the Same Risk	107	(1)
Compare Traits	108	(1)
Don't Compare Risks with Different Levels of Associated Outrage	108	(1)
Explain Reductions in Magnitude	109	(1)
In Summary	109	(1)
References	110	(1)
Additional Resources	110	(3)
PART II PLANNING THE RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORT	113	(80)
7 Determine Purpose and Objectives	115	(8)
Factors That Influence Purpose and Objectives	116	(5)
Legal Issues	116	(1)
Organizational Requirements	117	(1)
The Risk Itself	118	(2)
Audience Requirements	120	(1)
Checklist for Determining Purpose and Objectives	121	(1)
References	122	(1)
Additional Resources	122	(1)
8 Analyze Your Audience	123	(20)
Begin with Purpose and Objectives	125	(1)
Choose a Level of Analysis	125	(4)
Determine Key Audience Characteristics	129	(1)
Determine How to Find Audience Analysis Information	129	(9)
Incorporate Audience Analysis Information into Risk Communication Efforts	138	(2)
Checklist for Audience Analysis	140	(1)
References	141	(1)
Additional Resources	142	(1)
9 Develop Your Message	143	(14)
Information People Want	144	(1)
Mental Models	145	(4)
Message Mapping	149	(1)
Health Risk Communication	150	(3)
Crisis Communication	153	(1)
Checklist for Message Development	154	(1)
References	154	(1)
Additional Resources	155	(2)
10 Determine the Appropriate Methods	157	(14)
Information Materials	157	(2)
Visual Representation of Risk	159	(2)
Face-to-Face Communication	161	(1)
Working with the Media	162	(3)
Stakeholder Participation	165	(1)
Technology-Assisted Communication	166	(3)
Checklist for Determining Methods	169	(1)
Additional Resources	170	(1)
11 Set a Schedule	171	(10)
Legal Requirements	171	(1)
Organizational Requirements	172	(1)
The Scientific Process	173	(1)
Ongoing Activities	173	(1)
Audience Needs	174	(1)
Checklist for Setting Schedules	175	(4)
References	179	(2)
12 Develop a Communication Plan	181	(12)
What to Include in a Communication Plan	182	(3)
Developing Risk Communication Strategies	185	(6)
Storyboarding as a Planning Tool	185	(1)
Communication Planning Using the CERCLA Approach	186	(1)
Using an Audience Focus	187	(3)
Strategic Planning for Risk Communication	190	(1)
Checklist for Communication Planning	191	(1)
References	192	(1)
Additional Resources	192	(1)
PART III PUTTING RISK COMMUNICATION INTO ACTION	193	(180)
13 Information Materials	195	(18)
Constructing Information Materials	195	(8)
Information to Be Included	196	(4)
Organizing Material for Information Materials	200	(1)
Language for Information Materials	200	(2)
Narrative Style in Information Materials	202	(1)
Guidelines for Specific Types of Information Materials	203	(6)
Newsletters	204	(1)
Pamphlets, Booklets, and Fact Sheets	205	(1)
Posters, Advertisements, and Displays	206	(2)
Articles	208	(1)
Technical Reports	208	(1)
Checklist for Information Materials	209	(2)
References	211	(1)
Additional Resources	211	(2)
14 Visual Representation of Risks	213	(36)
Design Visuals for Specific Audiences and Uses	215	(3)
Match the Visual Portrayal to the Information to Be Conveyed	218	(3)
Pretest Graphics with Those Who Will Use Them	221	(3)
Using Visuals to Personalize Risk Information	224	(5)
Comparing Risks in Visual Formats	229	(1)
Depicting Probability and Uncertainty	230	(10)
Presenting Probability	231	(4)
Presenting Uncertainty	235	(1)
Consider Using Action Levels	236	(2)
Cumulative Distribution Functions: The Potential for Misinterpretation	238	(2)
Ethical Portrayal of Risk Information	240	(4)
Using Visual Information in Group Decision-Making	244	(1)
Checklist for Visual Representation of Risk	245	(1)
References	245	(3)
Additional Resources	248	(1)
15 Face-to-Face Communication	249	(22)
Constructing Face-to-Face Messages	250	(6)
Choose the Appropriate Spokesperson	250	(4)
Give the Audience Something to Take Away	254	(1)
Reinforce Your Message with Visual Aids	254	(1)
Speak in the Language of the Audience	255	(1)
Don't Promise What You Can't Deliver	256	(1)
Guidelines for Specific Types of Face-to-Face Communication	256	(12)
Speaking Engagements	256	(3)
Speakers Bureaus	259	(1)
Tours and Demonstrations	260	(2)
Video Presentations	262	(2)
Audience Interviews	264	(2)
Information Fairs	266	(1)
Training	266	(2)
Checklist for Face-to-Face Communication	268	(2)
References	270	(1)
Additional Resources	270	(1)
16 Working with the Media	271	(30)
The Roles of Mass Media in Risk Communication	271	(3)
Media Contrasted with Other Stakeholders	274	(1)
Productive Interaction, Not Polarization	275	(1)
Understanding "Cultural" Differences	276	(3)
The Media are Event-Focused	276	(1)
Certain Kinds of Risks Get More Coverage	277	(1)
Journalistic Independence and Deadlines Affect Content	277	(1)
The Need for Balance Invites Opposing Views	278	(1)
Information is Condensed, Simplified, and Personalized	279	(1)
Guidelines for Specific Situations	279	(7)
Develop Relationships with Local and Regional Media Representatives	280	(1)
Know When to Approach Media Representatives or When They May Approach You	280	(1)
Prepare Messages and Materials Carefully	281	(2)
Know Where to Draw the Line	283	(1)
Put Your Message in Terms the Reporter's Audience Can Understand	284	(1)
Put the Risk in Perspective	285	(1)
Respect the Reporter's Deadlines	285	(1)
Maintain Ethical Standards of Disclosure	285	(1)
Take Action When Inaccurate or Misleading Material is Published or Aired	286	(1)
Using Technology	286	(5)
Distribution Services	287	(1)
Video and Audio News Releases	288	(1)
Public Service Announcements	289	(1)
Telebriefings	290	(1)
Special Case: The Use of Mass Media in Public Health Campaigns	291	(5)
Paid Placements or Independent Coverage	291	(2)
Guidelines	293	(3)
Checklist for Media Approaches	296	(1)
References	297	(2)
Additional Resources	299	(2)
17 Stakeholder Participation	301	(36)
Requirements for Stakeholder Participation	302	(4)
Organizational Requirements for Successful Stakeholder Participation	302	(2)
Stakeholder Requirements for Successful Participation	304	(2)
Guidelines for Specific Types of Stakeholder Participation Activities	306	(23)
The Formal Hearing	306	(3)
Group Interactions	309	(8)
Interactions Involving Risk Assessment	317	(1)
Interactions Involving Decision-Making	318	(8)
Interactions Involving Risk Management	326	(3)
Evaluating Stakeholder Participation Based on Your Situation	329	(1)
Checklist for Stakeholder Participation	330	(3)
References	333	(2)
Additional Resources	335	(2)
18 Technology-Assisted Communication	337	(36)
Choosing Technology-Based Applications	338	(1)
Computers in the Workplace	339	(7)
Computer-Based Training	339	(4)
Informing Employees about Risks	343	(3)
Technology in Care Communication	346	(5)
Stand-Alone and Web-Delivered Multimedia Programs	351	(7)
CDs and Web Tools	351	(1)
Web and Satellite Broadcasts	352	(2)
Interactive Multimedia Programs in Public Places	354	(4)
Online Discussion Forums	358	(2)
Technology in Consensus Communication	360	(7)
Web Sites	360	(1)
Local Area Networks, Extranets, and Bulletin Boards	361	(1)
Computers in Centralized Public Locations	362	(1)
Tracking and Analyzing Comments and Responses	363	(1)
Facilitating Group Decision Making	364	(3)
Technology in Crisis Communication	367	(1)
Checklist for Technology-Based Applications	368	(1)
References	369	(1)
Additional Resources	370	(3)
PART IV EVALUATING RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS	373	(14)
19 Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts	375	(12)
Why Evaluate Risk Communication Efforts?	375	(1)
The Meaning of Success	376	(2)
Types of Evaluation	378	(3)
Conducting the Evaluation	381	(3)
Checklist for Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts	384	(1)
References	385	(1)
Additional Resources	386	(1)
PART V BIOTERRORISM AND OTHER EMERGENCIES	387	(36)
20 Risk Communication Before, During, and After Emergencies	389	(34)
Understanding Emergency Risk Communication	390	(5)
Emotions and Public Actions	390	(3)
Credibility and Trust	393	(2)
Planning for the Unexpected	395	(14)
Preparing Your Organization	396	(4)
Teaming with Other Organizations	400	(2)
Working with Communities in Advance	402	(1)
Determining Appropriate Communication Methods	403	(3)
Developing an Emergency Risk Communication Plan	406	(3)
Communication During an Emergency	409	(8)
Emergency Operation Centers	411	(1)
Working with the Media in an Emergency	412	(3)
Answering Questions	415	(2)
Communicating After an Emergency	417	(2)
References	419	(2)
Additional Resources	421	(2)
PART VI RESOURCES, GLOSSARY, INDEX	423
21 Resources	425	(10)
22 Glossary	435	(6)
23 Index	441