Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences : A Handbook of Techniques and Applications

by Fu; Cazenave

• ISBN13: 9780122695452
• ISBN10: 0122695453
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-10-26
• Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology

Summary

The new level of precision and global coverage provided by satellite altimetry is rapidly advancing studies of ocean circulation. It allows for new insights into marine geodesy, ice sheet movements, plate tectonics, and for the first time provides high-resolution bathymetry for previously unmapped regions of our watery planet and crucial information on the large-scale ocean features on intra-season to interannual time scales. Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences has integrated the expertise of the leading international researchers to demonstrate the techniques, missions, and accuracy of satellite altimetry, including altimeter measurements, orbit determination, and ocean circulation models. Satellite altimetry is helping to advance studies of ocean circulation, tides, sea level, surface waves and allowing new insights into marine geodesy. Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences provides high resolution bathymetry for previously unmapped regions of our watery planet. Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences is for a very broad spectrum of academics, graduate students, and researchers in geophysics, oceanography, and the space and earth sciences. International agencies that fund satellite-based research will also appreciate the handy reference on the applications of satellite altimetry.

Table of Contents

Contributors	ix
Preface	xi
Satellite Altimetry
Dudley B. Chelton
John C. Ries
Bruce J. Haines
Lee-Lueng Fu
Philip S. Callahan
Introduction	1	(3)
Radar Measurement Principles	4	(33)
Normalized Radar Cross Section	4	(2)
Ocean Surface Reflectivity	6	(1)
Atmospheric Attenuation	7	(4)
Two-Way Travel Time	11	(26)
Range Estimation	37	(27)
Atmospheric Refraction	37	(20)
Sea-State Effects	57	(7)
Precision Orbit Determination	64	(22)
The Orbit Determination Concept	66	(7)
Precision Satellite Tracking Systems	73	(6)
Orbit Estimation	79	(3)
Performance Assessment	82	(3)
Future Prospects	85	(1)
Geophysical Effects on the Sea Surface Topography	86	(6)
Geoid Undulations	86	(1)
Dynamic Sea-Surface Height	87	(1)
Ocean Tides	88	(2)
Atmospheric Pressure Loading	90	(1)
Aliased Barotropic Motion	91	(1)
Significant Wave Height Estimation	92	(3)
Significant Wave-Height Algorithms	92	(1)
Significant Wave Height Measurement Accuracy	93	(2)
Wind-Speed Estimation	95	(4)
Wind-Speed Model Functions	95	(4)
Wind Speed Measurement Accuracy	99	(1)
TOPEX/POSEIDON Mission Design and Performance	99	(20)
Orbit Considerations and Altimeter Sampling Patterns	99	(18)
Calibration and Validation	117	(2)
Measurement Performance	119	(1)
Outlook for Future Altimeter Missions	119	(14)
Acknowledgments	121	(1)
References	122	(11)
Large-Scale Ocean Circulation
Lee-Lueng Fu
Dudley B. Chelton
Introduction	133	(1)
The Ocean General Circulation	134	(4)
The Temporal Variability	138	(25)
Buoyancy-Forcing and the Heat Budget of the Ocean	140	(1)
Atmospheric Pressure Forcing	141	(1)
Wind Forcing	142	(3)
Baroclinic Rossby Waves	145	(13)
The Relation Between Sea Level and Subsurface Variability	158	(3)
The Annual Cycle	161	(1)
Interannual Variability	162	(1)
Conclusions	163	(8)
Acknowledgments	165	(1)
References	165	(6)
Ocean Currents and Eddies
P.Y. Le Traon
R. Morrow
Introduction	171	(2)
Altimeter Data Processing for Mesoscale Studies	173	(4)
Ocean Signal Extraction	173	(1)
Mapping and Merging of Multiple Altimeter Missions	174	(1)
Surface Geostrophic Velocity Calculations	174	(2)
Sampling Issues	176	(1)
Ocean Currents	177	(21)
Estimating the Absolute Velocities and Transports from Altimetry	178	(2)
Western Boundary Currents	180	(6)
Eastern Boundary Currents	186	(3)
Open Ocean Currents	189	(6)
Semi-Enclosed Seas	195	(3)
Mesoscale Eddies	198	(11)
Global Statistical Description	199	(1)
Seasonal Variations of Mesoscale Variability Intensity	200	(1)
Space and Time Scales of Mesoscale Variability	201	(2)
Frequency/Wavenumber Spectral Analysis	203	(3)
Comparison with Eddy-Resolving Models	206	(1)
Eddy Dynamics	206	(3)
Conclusions	209	(8)
Acknowledgments	210	(1)
References	210	(7)
Tropical Ocean Variability
Joel Picaut
Antonio J. Busalacchi
Introduction	217	(1)
Tropical Pacific	218	(9)
Sea-level Validation	218	(3)
Altimetry-derived Surface Current	221	(1)
Evidence of Equatorial Waves	221	(4)
Testing Theories of ENSO, Improving Its Prediction	225	(1)
Changes of Mass, Heat and Salt of the Upper Ocean	226	(1)
High-frequency Oscillations	227	(1)
Indian Ocean	227	(2)
Tropical Atlantic	229	(3)
Conclusion	232	(5)
Acknowledgments	233	(1)
References	233	(4)
Data Assimilation by Models
Ichiro Fukumori
Introduction	237	(1)
Examples and Merits of Data Assimilation	238	(5)
Data Assimilation as an Inverse Problem	243	(2)
Assimilation Methodologies	245	(7)
Inverse Methods	245	(1)
Overview of Assimilation Methods	246	(1)
Adjoint Method	246	(1)
Representer Method	247	(1)
Kalman Filter and Optimal Smoother	248	(1)
Model Green's Function	249	(1)
Optimal Interpolation	249	(1)
Three-Dimensional Variation Method	250	(1)
Direct Insertion	250	(1)
Nudging	251	(1)
Summary and Recommendation	251	(1)
Practical Issues of Assimilation	252	(9)
Weights, A Priori Uncertainties, and Extrapolation	252	(5)
Verification and the Goodness of Estimates	257	(2)
Observability	259	(1)
Mean Sea Level	260	(1)
Summary and Outlook	261	(6)
Acknowledgments	262	(1)
References	262	(5)
Ocean Tides
C. Le Provost
Introduction	267	(1)
Mathematical Representation of Ocean Tides	268	(2)
The Harmonic Expansion	268	(1)
The Response Formalism	268	(1)
The Orthotide Formalism	269	(1)
Status Before High-Precision Satellite Altimetry	270	(2)
In Situ Observations	270	(1)
Hydrodynamic Numerical Modeling	270	(2)
Modeling With Data Assimilation	272	(1)
Methodologies for Extracting Ocean Tides from Altimetry	272	(5)
Tidal Aliasing in Altimeter Data	273	(2)
Methods for Estimating Ocean Tides from Satellite Altimetry	275	(2)
The Semi-Diurnal and Diurnal Tides over the Deep Ocean	277	(10)
Characteristics of the Ocean Tides at the Global Scale	277	(2)
Coherency and Accuracy Assessment	279	(8)
The Long Period Ocean Tides	287	(4)
Internal Tides	291	(2)
Methodology for Internal Tide Extraction from Satellite Data	291	(1)
Recent Results on Internal Tides from Satellite Altimetry	292	(1)
The Tides over Shallow Waters	293	(1)
Nonlinear Constituents Solutions from Altimetry	293	(1)
Improving Shallow-water Tide Solution Through Assimilation	294	(1)
Tidal Energetics and Satellite Altimetry	294	(3)
Dissipation Through Bottom Friction	295	(1)
Tidal Fluxes	295	(2)
Internal Tide Dissipation	297	(1)
Applications	297	(3)
Earth Rotation	298	(1)
Tidal Loading	298	(1)
Tidal Currents	298	(2)
Tides and Coastal Engineering	300	(1)
Conclusions	300	(5)
Acknowledgments	301	(1)
References	301	(4)
Ocean Surface Waves
J.-M. Lefevre
P.D. Cotton
Introduction	305	(1)
Wave Modeling and Altimetry	306	(10)
Numerical Wave Prediction	306	(2)
Altimetric Applications	308	(3)
Operational Data Assimilation	311	(4)
Use of Model Data to Improve Altimetry	315	(1)
Wave Climate Studies with Altimeter Data	316	(10)
Introduction	316	(1)
The Data	316	(2)
Global Ocean Wave Field	318	(2)
Climate Variability	320	(6)
Summary	326	(1)
Conclusions	326	(1)
Glossary	327	(2)
Acknowledgments	327	(1)
References	327	(2)
Sea Level Change
R. S. Nerem
G. T. Mitchum
Introduction	329	(1)
The Tide Gauge Record and its Limitations	330	(2)
Satellite Altimeter Measurements of Sea-Level Change	332	(2)
Calibration of Satellite Altimeter Measurements Using Tide Gauge Data	334	(4)
Detecting Changes in the Rate of Sea-Level Rise	338	(4)
Global Mean Changes in Sea Level, Sea-Surface Temperature, and Precipitable Water	342	(2)
Spatial Variations of Sea-Level Change and Sea-Surface Temperature	344	(2)
Linking Together Different Satellite Altimeter Missions	346	(1)
Conclusions	347	(4)
Acknowledgments	347	(1)
References	347	(4)
Ice Sheet Dynamics and Mass Balance
H. Jay Zwally
Anita C. Brenner
Introduction	351	(3)
Radar Altimeter Measurement of Ice Sheet Surface Elevations	354	(6)
The Effect of Surface Slope and Undulations	355	(1)
The Effect of Penetration and Sub-surface Volume Scattering	356	(1)
Waveform Shape Fitting and Retracking	357	(2)
Summary of Radar Altimetry Missions Used for Ice Sheet Elevation Studies	359	(1)
Greenland and Antarctica Ice Sheet Topography	360	(2)
Data Preparation	360	(1)
Gridding Procedure	361	(1)
Accuracy Analysis of Digital Elevation Models	361	(1)
Ice Surface Slopes and Driving Stresses	362	(1)
Measurement of Ice Margins	363	(1)
Surface Elevation Changes and Mass Balance	363	(8)
Acknowledgments	367	(1)
References	367	(4)
Applications to Geodesy
Byron D. Tapley
Myung-Chan Kim
Introduction	371	(2)
Mean Sea Surface Mapping	373	(13)
Historical Review	375	(1)
Repeat-Track Averaging	376	(2)
Crossover Adjustment	378	(4)
Weighted Least-Squares Objective Analysis	382	(4)
Gravity Recovery	386	(9)
Geoid Undulation and Gravity Anomaly	386	(3)
Short-Wavelength Marine Gravity Field	389	(2)
Global Gravity Recovery	391	(1)
Marine Geoid Error	392	(3)
New Frontiers	395	(8)
Time-Varying Gravity Field	395	(2)
Variations in the Geocenter and Earth Rotation Parameters	397	(2)
Roles of Satellite Gravity Data	399	(4)
Concluding Remarks	403	(4)
Acknowledgments	403	(1)
References	403	(4)
Applications to Marine Geophysics
Anny Cazenave
Jean Yves Royer
Introduction	407	(1)
Filtering the Long-Wavelength Geoid Signal	408	(1)
Geoid Anomalies and Isostatic Compensation	408	(3)
Local Compensation in the Long-Wavelength Approximation	409	(1)
Regional Compensation	410	(1)
Admittance Approach	411	(1)
Mechanical Behavior of Oceanic Plates: Flexure under Seamount Loading	411	(2)
Thermal Evolution of the Oceanic Lithosphere	413	(3)
Oceanic Hotspot Swells	416	(2)
Short and Medium Wavelength Lineations in the Marine Geoid	418	(2)
Mapping the Seafloor Tectonic Fabric	420	(14)
Fracture Zones	420	(3)
Seamounts	423	(9)
Spreading Ridges	432	(2)
Conclusions	434	(7)
Acknowledgments	435	(1)
References	435	(6)
Bathymetric Estimation
David T. Sandwell
Walter H.F. Smith
Introduction	441	(1)
Gravity Anomaly and Sea Surface Slopes	442	(1)
Geoid Height, Vertical Deflection, Gravity Gradient, and Gravity Anomaly	442	(1)
Limitations of Radar Altimetry for Gravity Field Recovery	443	(1)
Forward Models	444	(1)
Inverse Approaches	445	(2)
Data Availability and Case Study: Bathymetric Estimation	447	(5)
Results, Verification, and Hypsometry	448	(3)
Effects on Ocean Currents	451	(1)
Prospects for the Future	452	(1)
Appendix: Interaction of the Radar Pulse with the Rough Ocean Surface	453	(6)
Beam-Limited Footprint	453	(1)
Pulse-limited Footprint	454	(1)
Significant Wave Height	454	(2)
Modeling the Return Waveform	456	(1)
References	456	(3)
Index	459