The book describes in detail the considerable efforts by theoretical and experimental physicists to understand the beta spectra of atomic nuclei. After a brief prehistory, the main narrative spans the period from 1911, when Rutherford and collaborators in Manchester established that the atom had an extremely massive nucleus, until 1934, when the question of beta decay was settled theoretically by Fermi and others. It includes prominently the intense controversy over several years between Lise Meitner from Germany and C. D. Ellis from England about the origin of beta rays. Aside from providing a rich story in its own right, the narrative is uniquely suited to illuminate currently debated issues such as the relationship between theory and experiment, scientific controversy, the role and resolution of anomalies, and national differences in the approach to science.

In Carsten Jensen's Memory

vi

Editors' Acknowledgements

vii

Editors' Preface

ix

Author's Preface

xi

Abbreviations

xvi

The Main Decay Chains

xvii

Prelude: Beta-Spectrum Research in the Pre-Nuclear Years, 1900--1911

Discovery and identification of the beta particle

1

(2)

The first experiments on the velocity distribution of beta particles

3

(4)

Absorption measurements question the inhomogeneity of the beta particles

7

(11)

The Hahn--Meitner vs. Wilson controversy

18

(5)

From unity to complexity: magnetic-deflection experiments, 1910--1911

23

(6)

The Origin of Beta Rays, and the Growing Complexity of Their Spectrum: The Rutherford Era, 1911--1919

Introduction

29

(2)

Rutherford's 1912 theory, and reactions to it

31

(3)

The beta particle as a nuclear constituent

34

(3)

An extreme complexity of beta line-spectra is brought to light: deflection experiments in the years 1911--1913

37

(4)

Continuity as well as lines: The composite beta spectrum

41

(4)

Rutherford's 1914 theory

45

(2)

The Bohr--Sommerfeld quantum conditions and the beta line-spectrum

47

(3)

Rutherford and the gamma rays

50

(5)

The Rise of a Controversy: Ellis, Meitner and Smekal Advance Different Beta-Spectrum Theories, 1920--1922

Introduction

55

(1)

Internal conversion, nuclear levels, and Ellis's interpretation of the beta line-spectrum

56

(8)

Analogy between alpha and beta emission, and Meitner's interpretation of the beta line-spectrum

64

(4)

Ellis's response to Meitner's hypothesis, and his interpretation of the continuous beta spectrum

68

(6)

Meitner replies to Ellis, and reveals her view on the continuous beta spectrum

74

(5)

The atom as a unity: Smekal joins the discussion, and is met with a sharp reaction

79

(9)

Two repetitions of the Chadwick experiment lead to contradictory conclusions

88

(7)

Secondary Effects and Order of Emission: Two Main Questions in the Controversy, 1923--1925

Introduction

95

(1)

Meitner investigates the beta spectrum of UX1 and takes it as further support for her view

95

(4)

Radiationless transitions: Rosseland suggests an explanation of the emission of primary, and some secondary, beta particles

99

(3)

The nuclear field and the Compton effect: Two possible reasons for the continuous beta spectrum

102

(3)

Ellis and Skinner reinvestigate the beta line-spectra of RaB and C, and serious problems arise

105

(5)

Beta first, gamma second, or is it the other way around?

110

(11)

The End of the Beginning: The Controversy Enters the Decisive Phase, 1925--1929

Introduction

121

(1)

Ellis adjusts his view on the emission process, but maintains his interpretation of the continuous spectrum

122

(1)

The number of emitted beta particles

123

(5)

Ellis and Wooster's tour de force: A determination of the heating effect of RaE

128

(9)

Continental reactions to Ellis and Wooster's experiment

137

(6)

Some concluding remarks about the controversy

143

(2)

From Anomaly to Explanation: The Continuous Beta Spectrum, 1929--1934

Introduction

145

(1)

Non-conservation of energy or a new particle? The first phase of the Bohr--Pauli dispute, 1929--1932

146

(11)

Other attempts at explaining the anomalous continuity

157

(6)

The question of upper limits in beta spectra, and the thorium C branching problem

163

(7)

The impact of the miraculous year: The second phase of the Bohr--Pauli dispute, 1932--1933

170

(7)

The two theories of beta decay

177

(8)

Towards a Theory of Internal Conversion: The Beta Line-Spectrum, 1927--1934

Introduction

185

(1)

Experimental evidence brings about a new view on the origin of gamma rays

186

(8)

The radiation hypothesis proves insufficient to explain internal conversion of gamma rays

194

(5)

A theory of internal conversion is developed

199

(8)

Summary and Conclusion

207

(6)

Name Index

213

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Controversy and Consensus

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