The relation between ontologies and language is currently at the forefront of natural language processing (NLP). Ontologies, as widely used models in semantic technologies, have much in common with the lexicon. A lexicon organizes words as a conventional inventory of concepts, while an ontology formalizes concepts and their logical relations. A shared lexicon is the prerequisite for knowledge-sharing through language, and a shared ontology is the prerequisite for knowledge-sharing through information technology. In building models of language, computational linguists must be able to accurately map the relations between words and the concepts that they can be linked to. This book focuses on the technology involved in enabling integration between lexical resources and semantic technologies. It will be of interest to researchers and graduate students in NLP, computational linguistics, and knowledge engineering, as well as in semantics, psycholinguistics, lexicology and morphology/syntax.

Chu-Ren Huang is Chair Professor in the Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and Research Fellow at the Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica in Taiwan. Nicoletta Calzolari is Director of Research in Instituto di Linguistica Computazionale at the CNR in Italy. Aldo Gangemi is senior researcher at the Institute of Cognitive Science and Technology of CNR (Italy), and coordinator of the Semantic Technology Lab. Alessandro Lenci is a researcher in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Pisa. Alessandro Oltramari is a Research Fellow in the Laboratory for Applied Ontology, Institute of Cognitive Science and Technology at the Italian National Research Council. Laurent Prvot is an Associate Professor at the Universit de Provence.

Contributors	p. xi
Preface	p. xvii
Fundamental aspects	p. 1
Ontology and the lexicon: a multidisciplinary perspective	p. 3
Situating ontologies and lexical resources	p. 3
The content of ontologies	p. 10
Theoretical framework for the ontologies/lexicons interface	p. 14
From ontologies to the lexicon and back	p. 21
Outline of chapters	p. 23
Formal ontology as interlingua: the SUMO and WordNet linking project and global WordNet	p. 25
WordNet	p. 25
Principles of construction of formal ontologies and lexicons	p. 29
Mappings	p. 30
Interpreting language	p. 32
Global WordNet	p. 33
SUMO translation templates	p. 35
Interfacing WordNet with DOLCE: towards Onto WordNet	p. 36
Introduction	p. 36
WordNet's preliminary analysis	p. 37
The DOLCE upper ontology	p. 39
Mapping WordNet into DOLCE	p. 48
Conclusion	p. 52
Reasoning over natural language text by means of FrameNet and ontologies	p. 53
Introduction	p. 53
An introduction to the FrameNet lexicon	p. 54
Linking FrameNet to ontologies for reasoning	p. 56
Formalizing FrameNet in OWL DL	p. 57
Reasoning over FrameNet-annotated text	p. 62
Linking FrameNet to SUMO	p. 66
Discussion	p. 69
Conclusion and outlook	p. 70
Synergizing ontologies and the lexicon: a roadmap	p. 72
Formal mappings between ontologies	p. 72
Evaluation of ontolex resources	p. 73
Bridging different lexical models and resources	p. 75
Technological framework	p. 77
Discovery and representation of conceptual systems	p. 79
Experiments of ontology construction with Formal Concept Analysis	p. 81
Introduction	p. 81
Basic concepts and related work	p. 82
Dataset selection and design of experiments	p. 86
Evaluation and discussion	p. 92
Conclusion and future work	p. 96
Ontology, lexicon, and fact repository as leveraged to interpret events of change	p. 98
Introduction	p. 98
A snapshot of OntoSem	p. 100
Motivation for pursuing deep analysis of events of change	p. 101
Increase	p. 102
Content divorced from its rendering	p. 114
NLP with reasoning and for reasoning	p. 117
Conclusion	p. 118
Hantology: Conceptual system discovery based on orthographic convention	p. 122
Introduction: hanzi and conventionalized conceptualization	p. 122
General framework	p. 126
Conceptualization and classification of the radicals system	p. 128
The ontology of a radical as a semantic symbol	p. 132
The architecture of Hantology	p. 133
OWL encoding of Hantology	p. 137
Summary	p. 139
Conclusion	p. 142
What's in a schema?	p. 144
Introduction	p. 144
An ontology for cognitive linguistics	p. 146
The c.DnS ontology	p. 148
Schemata, mental spaces, and constructions	p. 161
An embodied semiotic metamodel	p. 166
Applying Semion to FrameNet and related resources	p. 169
Conclusion	p. 181
Interfacing ontologies and lexical resources	p. 183
Interfacing ontologies and lexical resources	p. 185
Introduction	p. 185
Classifying experiments in ontologies and lexical resources	p. 185
Ontologies and their construction	p. 188
How actual resources fit the classification	p. 190
Two practical examples	p. 194
Available tools for the ontology lexical resource interface	p. 196
Conclusion	p. 200
Sinica BOW (Bilingual Ontological WordNet): integration of bilingual WordNet and SUMO	p. 201
Background and motivation	p. 201
Resources and structure required in the BOW approach	p. 202
Interfacing multiple resources: a lexicon-driven approach	p. 204
Integration of multiple knowledge sources	p. 207
Updating and future improvements	p. 209
Conclusion	p. 210
Ontology-based semantic lexicons: mapping between terms and object descriptions	p. 212
Introduction	p. 212
Why we need semantic lexicons	p. 213
More semantics than we need	p. 215
The semantics we need is in ontologies	p. 218
Conclusion	p. 223
Merging global and specialized linguistic ontologies	p. 224
Introduction	p. 224
Linguistic ontologies versus formal ontologies	p. 226
Specialized linguistic ontologies	p. 229
The plug-in approach	p. 230
Experiments	p. 236
Applications and extensions	p. 237
Conclusion	p. 238
Learning and using ontological knowledge	p. 239
The life cycle of knowledge	p. 241
Introduction	p. 241
Using ontolexical knowledge in NLP	p. 242
Creating ontolexical knowledge with NLP	p. 249
Conclusion	p. 256
The Omega ontology	p. 258
Introduction	p. 258
Constituents of Omega	p. 258
Structure of Omega	p. 260
Construction of Omega via merging	p. 263
Omega's auxiliary knowledge sources	p. 264
Applications	p. 266
Omega 5 and the OntoNotes project	p. 267
Discussion and future work	p. 268
Conclusion	p. 269
Automatic acquisition of lexico-semantic knowledge for question answering	p. 271
Introduction	p. 271
Lexico-semantic knowledge for QA	p. 272
Related work	p. 274
Extracting semantically similar words	p. 275
Using automatically acquired role and function words	p. 279
Using automatically acquired categorized NEs	p. 280
Evaluation	p. 283
Conclusion and future work	p. 286
Agricultural ontology construction and maintenance in Thai	p. 288
Introduction	p. 288
A framework of ontology construction and maintenance	p. 290
Ontology acquisition from texts	p. 291
Ontology acquisitions from a dictionary and a thesaurus	p. 301
Integration into an ontological tree	p. 306
Conclusion	p. 307
References	p. 309
Index	p. 335
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