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Preface | p. ix |
Acknowledgments | p. x |
Basic electromagnetism | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Magnetic forces, poles and fields | p. 1 |
Magnetic dipoles | p. 2 |
Ampere's circuital law | p. 3 |
Biot-Savart Law | p. 5 |
Magnetic moments | p. 5 |
Magnetic dipole energy | p. 6 |
Magnetic flux | p. 7 |
Magnetic induction | p. 7 |
Classical Maxwell equations of electromagnetism | p. 8 |
Inductance | p. 9 |
Equation tables | p. 10 |
Homework | p. 11 |
References | p. 12 |
Magnetic films | p. 13 |
Origin of magnetization | p. 13 |
Russell-Saunders coupling | p. 16 |
jj coupling | p. 16 |
Introduction of magnetic materials | p. 17 |
Diamagnetism | p. 18 |
Paramagnetism | p. 20 |
Ferromagnetism | p. 23 |
Antiferromagnetism | p. 28 |
Ferrimagnetism | p. 30 |
Ferromagnet/antiferromagnet bilayer structure | p. 30 |
Intuitive picture in exchange bias | p. 31 |
Positive exchange bias | p. 33 |
Theories of exchange bias | p. 35 |
AFM domain wall model | p. 36 |
Random field model | p. 38 |
Interlayer exchange coupling in ferromagnet/metal/ferromagnet multilayer | p. 39 |
Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida interaction | p. 41 |
Néel coupling | p. 44 |
Micromagnetic simulation | p. 46 |
Anisotropy energy | p. 46 |
Exchange energy | p. 47 |
Magnetostatic energy | p. 47 |
Zeeman energy | p. 48 |
Homework | p. 48 |
References | p. 49 |
Properties of patterned ferromagnetic films | p. 51 |
Introduction | p. 51 |
Edge poles and demagnetizing field | p. 51 |
Demagnetizing factor of elliptic-shaped film | p. 52 |
Edge curling | p. 54 |
Magnetic domain | p. 55 |
Transition region between domains: domain wall | p. 55 |
Bloch wall and Néel wall | p. 57 |
C-state, S-state and vortex | p. 58 |
Magnetization behavior under an external field | p. 59 |
Magnetization rotation in a full film | p. 60 |
Magnetization rotation in a patterned film | p. 61 |
Magnetization switching | p. 62 |
Magnetization rotation and switching under a field in the easy-axis direction | p. 63 |
Magnetization rotation and switching under two orthogonal applied fields | p. 64 |
Magnetization behavior of a synthetic antiferromagnetic film stack | p. 68 |
Homework | p. 71 |
References | p. 72 |
Magnetoresistance effects | p. 74 |
Introduction | p. 74 |
Anisotropic magnetoresistance | p. 74 |
Giant magnetoresistance | p. 77 |
Tunneling magnetoresistance | p. 79 |
Giant tunneling magnetoresistance | p. 83 |
Tunneling magnetoresistance in perpendicular magnetic tunneling junction | p. 88 |
Homework | p. 89 |
References | p. 89 |
Field-write mode MRAMs | p. 91 |
Introduction | p. 91 |
Magnetic tunnel junction RAM cell | p. 93 |
Cross-point array | p. 93 |
1T-1MTJ cell | p. 94 |
Read signal | p. 95 |
Sense reference cell | p. 96 |
Sense amplifier | p. 98 |
Write bit cell with magnetic field | p. 100 |
Write-field conversion efficiency | p. 100 |
Write-line cladding | p. 101 |
Astroid-mode MRAM | p. 102 |
Switching-energy barrier of Astroid-mode write | p. 102 |
Write-error rate of a bit cell | p. 105 |
Write soft error rate of an array of memory cells | p. 105 |
Homework | p. 106 |
Solution to the write disturbance problem | p. 106 |
Toggle-mode MRAM | p. 109 |
Toggle-mode cell | p. 109 |
Switching of SAF free layer in toggle-mode write | p. 111 |
Energy diagram of toggle operation | p. 112 |
Write-current reduction | p. 116 |
Characterization method of MRAM chip write performance | p. 116 |
Thermally assisted field write | p. 118 |
Multi-transistor cells for high-speed MRAM operation | p. 119 |
References | p. 120 |
Spin-torque-transfer mode MRAM | p. 122 |
Introduction | p. 122 |
Spin polarization of free electrons in ferromagnets | p. 122 |
Interaction between polarized free electrons and magnetization-macroscopic model | p. 124 |
Spin-torque transfer in a multilayer thin-film stack | p. 126 |
Spin-transfer torque and switching threshold current density | p. 129 |
Switching characteristics and threshold in magnetic tunnel junctions | p. 131 |
Regimes of write pulse width | p. 132 |
Switching probability in the thermal regime | p. 133 |
Spin-torque-transfer switching under a magnetic field | p. 140 |
Magnetic back-hopping | p. 141 |
Reliability of tunnel barriers in MTJs | p. 143 |
SPICE model of MTJs and memory cells | p. 144 |
Memory cell operation | p. 146 |
I-V characteristics of STT memory cell during write | p. 148 |
Read and write voltage window of STT memory cell | p. 150 |
Sense signal margin | p. 151 |
Homework | p. 152 |
Write-to-breakdown-voltage margin | p. 152 |
Data retention and Eb extraction method | p. 153 |
Thermal stability of STT memory chip | p. 154 |
Homework | p. 155 |
Write-current reduction | p. 156 |
Nanocurrent-channel film-stack structure | p. 157 |
Double-spin-filter structure | p. 159 |
Perpendicular MTJ | p. 159 |
Direct observation of magnetization reversal | p. 161 |
References | p. 163 |
Applications of MTJ-based technology | p. 165 |
Introduction | p. 165 |
MRAM market position | p. 165 |
MTJ applications in CMOS SoC chips | p. 169 |
Embedded memory in logic chips | p. 169 |
Unbalanced MTJ flip-flop | p. 169 |
Non-volatile multiplexer | p. 172 |
MTJ data register | p. 172 |
System-on-chip power reduction | p. 173 |
Runtime reconfigurable electronic system | p. 175 |
References | p. 175 |
Unit conversion table for cgs and SI units | p. 176 |
Dimensions of units of magnetism | p. 177 |
Physical constants | p. 178 |
Gaussian distribution and quantile plots | p. 179 |
Weibull distribution | p. 181 |
Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) of magnetic tunnel junction devices | p. 183 |
Binomial distribution and Poisson distribution | p. 185 |
Defect density and the breakdown/TMR distribution of MTJ devices | p. 187 |
Fe, Ni and Co material parameters | p. 189 |
Soft error, hard fail and design margin | p. 190 |
Index | p. 193 |
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