Chemistry for the Life Sciences

Chemistry for the Life Sciences has been produced specifically to help first-year life science undergraduates with the chemical background that they need to support the study of their main subject. Clear and concise, it focuses on the particular aspects of chemistry that underpin biochemical and biomedical studies. The material is presented as a sequence of short topics with numerical or conceptual ideas supported by worked examples and questions within the text. The approach, as well as the examples used, are based firmly within a biological context. Students with a limited background in chemistry will benefit particularly from this volume.

Peter Swindells is Senior Lecturer in the School of Applied Sciences.

Series editor's preface

ix

Introduction and how to use this text

x

Elements, Atoms and Electrons

1

(13)

Introduction

1

(1)

Matter and elements

1

(1)

Atoms

2

(1)

Atomic structure

2

(3)

Isotopes

5

(1)

The periodic table

6

(1)

Electron structure of atoms

6

(6)

The mole concept

12

(2)

Summary

13

(1)

Selected further reading

13

(1)

End of chapter questions

13

(1)

Covalent Bonding and Molecules

14

(15)

Introduction

14

(1)

Interactions between atoms

14

(1)

Covalent bonds formed by sharing outer electrons

14

(4)

Formulae of compounds

18

(3)

Covalent bonds formed by combining atomic orbitals

21

(2)

Single overlap, the sigma bond

23

(1)

Double overlap, the pi bond

23

(1)

Molecules with σ and &pi bonds

24

(2)

Hybrid molecular orbitals

26

(3)

Summary

28

(1)

End of chapter questions

28

(1)

Forces Within and Between Molecules

29

(10)

Introduction

29

(1)

Ionic bonding

29

(2)

Polar covalent bonds

31

(1)

Dipole-dipole forces

32

(1)

The hydrogen bond

33

(2)

van der Waals forces

35

(1)

The hydrophobic effect

35

(1)

Coordinate bonds

36

(3)

Summary

37

(1)

End of chapter questions

37

(2)

Chemical Reactions

39

(9)

Introduction

39

(1)

Rates of reaction

39

(1)

Factors affecting rate of reaction

39

(1)

Rate equations

40

(1)

Integrated forms of rate equations

40

(1)

Zero-order reactions

40

(1)

Integrated form of the zero-order rate equation

41

(1)

First-order reactions

41

(1)

Integrated form of the first-order rate equation

41

(1)

Second-order reactions

42

(1)

Integrated forms of second-order rate equations

42

(1)

Pseudo-first-order reactions

43

(1)

Reversible reactions

44

(1)

Equilibrium

44

(4)

Summary

46

(1)

Suggested further reading

47

(1)

End of chapter questions

47

(1)

Acids, Bases and Buffers

48

(15)

Introduction

48

(1)

Ionisation of water

48

(1)

The hydrogen ion

49

(1)

Acids and bases

49

(1)

Strong acids and strong bases

49

(1)

Weak acids and weak bases

50

(1)

Ka and Kb

50

(1)

Relationship between Ka and Kb

51

(1)

pH, pOH, pKw, pKa, and pKb

52

(1)

Solutions of weak acids and bases

53

(2)

Salts and salt hydrolysis

55

(1)

Buffer systems

56

(1)

Calculating the pHs of buffers

57

(2)

Indicators

59

(1)

Titrations

60

(3)

Summary

61

(1)

Suggested further reading

62

(1)

End of chapter questions

62

(1)

Carbon Compounds

63

(17)

Introduction

63

(1)

Simple molecules containing carbon

63

(2)

Organic compounds

65

(1)

Alkanes and alkyl groups

65

(3)

Alkenes

68

(1)

Alcohols

69

(2)

Thiols

71

(1)

Aldehydes and ketones

72

(2)

Carboxylic acids

74

(3)

Amines

77

(3)

Summary

79

(1)

End of chapter questions

79

(1)

Lipids, Sugars and Linkages Between Reactive Groups

80

(12)

Introduction

80

(1)

Fatty acids

80

(3)

Esters

83

(1)

Glycerol esters

84

(1)

Hemiacetals and hemiketals

85

(1)

Simple sugars

86

(1)

Chirality in simple sugars

87

(1)

Straight-chain sugars spontaneously form rings

88

(1)

Sugar hydroxyls can be chemically modified

89

(1)

Sugars are joined together by glycosidic bonds

89

(3)

Summary

91

(1)

Suggested further reading

91

(1)

End of chapter questions

91

(1)

Organic and Biological Reaction Mechanisms

92

(16)

Introduction

92

(1)

Reactive sites and functional groups

92

(3)

Describing reaction mechanisms

95

(1)

Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution

96

(1)

Electrophilic addition to a non-polar double bond

97

(1)

Elimination to form an alkene

98

(3)

Nucleophilic addition to a polar double bond

101

(2)

Free radical reactions

103

(1)

Carbon-carbon bond formation in biosynthesis

104

(4)

Summary

106

(1)

Suggested further reading

119

(1)

End of chapter questions

119

(1)

Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

120

(8)

Introduction

120

(1)

Oxidation is linked to reduction

120

(1)

The chemical changes in the redox process

121

(1)

Splitting redox reactions

121

(2)

Standardising redox half-reactions

123

(1)

Predicting electron flow

123

(2)

Free energy and standard reduction potentials

125

(1)

Redox reactions and non-standard conditions

126

(2)

Summary

127

(1)

Suggested further reading

127

(1)

End of chapter questions

127

(1)

Energy

128

(11)

Introduction

128

(1)

The first law of thermodynamics

128

(1)

Units of energy

129

(1)

Measurement of energy

129

(1)

Internal energy, U, and enthalpy, H

129

(1)

Calorimetry

129

(1)

Hess's law

130

(2)

Enthalpies of formation

132

(2)

The second law of thermodynamics

134

(1)

Free energy

135

(1)

Interaction of δH with TδS

135

(4)

Summary

137

(1)

Suggested further reading

137

(1)

End of chapter questions

137

(2)

Reactions and Equilibrium

139

(11)

Introduction

139

(1)

δG and equilibrium

139

(3)

Activation energy

142

(1)

The effect of temperature on reaction rate

142

(1)

Arrhenius's equation

143

(2)

Catalysis

145

(1)

Enzyme catalysis

145

(1)

Kinetics of enzyme reactions

146

(1)

Finding Km and Vmax

146

(4)

Summary

148

(1)

Suggested further reading

149

(1)

End of chapter questions

149

(1)

Light

150

(11)

Introduction

150

(1)

Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum

150

(1)

Wavelength and frequency

151

(2)

The quantum theory of light

153

(1)

The absorption of light

154

(2)

The relationship between light absorption and concentration

156

(1)

The spectrophotometer

157

(1)

The fate of absorbed light

158

(3)

Summary

160

(1)

Suggested further reading

160

(1)

End of chapter questions

160

(1)

Answers to Questions

161

(31)

Appendix: Derivations of Equations

192

(10)

Index

202

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